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PRACTICAL 

VETERINARY PHARMACOLOGY 

AND THERAPEUTICS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON - CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



Practical 

Veterinary Pharmacology 

and Therapeutics 



BY 

HOWARD JAY MILKS, D.V.M. 

Professor of Therapeutics and Small Animal Clinic, New 

York State Veterinary College at Cornell 

University, Ithaca, N, Y. 



$>m fork 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1917 

All rights reserved 



COPYKIGHT, 1917 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1917. 



Nay;2i2 1917 

The use in this volume of certain portions of the text of the 
United States Pharmacopoeia is by virtue of permission received 
from the Board of Trustees of the United States Pharmacopceial Con- 
vention. The said Board of Trustees is not responsible for any in- 
accuracy of quotation nor for any errors in the statement of quanti- 
ties or percentage strengths. 



©GI.A479161 

Yi-o y 



PEEFACE 

This book is intended for a practical text on Veterinary Materia 
Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics. The author realizes that 
the only object of studying pharmacology is the use of drugs in treat- 
ing disease, yet, in order to prescribe a drug intelligently it is nec- 
essary to have more than a general idea of its action. The greater 
emphasis is placed upon pharmacology because the author believes 
that the only place to study Materia Medica is in the laboratory and 
Therapeutics can best be studied in medicine and the clinics. 

There are numerous ways in which remedies may be grouped 
and none is perfect although it seems that a therapeutic grouping 
has many advantages since it allows a better correlation between 
the action and the uses of the different agents. Consequently the 
plan has been to discuss the different groups in a general way and 
then follow with a detailed description of the individual drugs. 

The prescriptions are intended only to be representative and to 
illustrate the ways in which medicines may be prescribed, although 
many of them have been tried and are in almost daily use by the 
author. 

The author claims little if any originality in the material in- 
cluded. He has drawn freely from the current literature and stand- 
ard books on the subject. He has not considered it wise to include 
a bibliography in a book of this kind. Yet he would especially 
desire to mention such books as those of Cushny, Sollmann, Bastedo, 
Dixon, Hoare and Frohner on pharmacology and therapeutics ; those 
of Law and Hutyra and Marek on medicine and Amy on pharmacy. 
In conclusion I desire to express my appreciation to Dr. C. P. Fitch 
for the most excellent chapter on Bacterius, Serums, Vaccines and 
antitoxins, and to Prof. P. A. Fish for the use of several tracings. 

H. J. M. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I page 

Introduction 1 

Definitions 1 

Source and Composition of Drugs 1 

Gross Anatomy of Plants 2 

Chemistry of Plants 2 

CHAPTER II 

Pharmacy 6 

Metrology 7 

CHAPTER III 

Pharmaceutic Methods 12 

CHAPTER IV 

Dispensing 17 

CHAPTER V 

Pharmacy Proper 21 

Liquid Preparations 21 

Solid Preparations 22 

Assaying 43 

Solubilities of Salts 43 

Incompatibility : 45 

CHAPTER VI 

Prescription Writing 49 

Grammatical construction of prescriptions 52 

Rules for formation of Genitive case 52 

Latin Words and Phrases 55 

Liquid Prescriptions 59 

Percentage Solutions 60 

CHAPTER VII 

Introduction to Pharmacology 62 

Action of Drugs 62 

Methods of Adminstration 64 

History of Therapeutics 66 

Methods of Treatment 68 

Use of Drugs 70 

CHAPTER VIII 

Drugs Acting upon the Circulatory System 72 

1. Circulatory Stimulants 72 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

2. Circulatory Depressants 90 

3. Vasoconstrictors 98 

Measures of Increasing the Volume of Blood . . . 102 

4. Vasodilators 105 

Measures for Decreasing the Volume of Blood . . 109 

CHAPTER IX 

Antipyretics or Febrifuges Ill 

Cinchona and Quinine Group Ill 

Coal Tar Antipyretics 115 

Salicylic Acid and the Salicylates 119 

CHAPTER X 

Drugs Affecting Chiefly the Nervous System 126 

A. Stimulants to Central Nervous System 126 

B. Depressants to Central Nervous System 135 

Hypnotics 135 

Antispasmodics 157 

Anesthetics 158 

Drugs Acting Upon the Peripheral Nervous System . . . 173 

A. Drugs Depressing the Peripheral Nerves .... 174 

Local Anesthetics 184 

Motor Nerve Depressants 196 

B. Peripheral Nerve Stimulants 203 

Mydriatics 212 

Myotics 214 

CHAPTER XI 

Specifics for the Alimentary Tract 215 

1. Stomachics or Bitters 215 

2. Gastric Antacids 217 

3. Digestive Ferments 219 

4. Carminatives 221 

5. Emetics .224 

6. Antemetics 231 

7. Purgatives 232 

A. Irritants 237 

a. Some Very Weak Laxatives 237 

b. Fixed Oils and Their Products .... 238 

c. Anthracine Derivatives ....... 241 

d. The Mercurials 246 

e. Drastics 248 

f. Salines 252 

B. So Called Rapid Purgatives 255 

Agents Acting upon the Rectum .... 257 
Enemata 257 

8. Astringents 259 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

9. Anthelmintics 270 

Tsenicides 272 

Kound Worm Group 276 

Hookworm Remedies 280 

Lungworm Remedies 281 

CHAPTER XII 

Volatile Oil Group 282 

CHAPTER XIII 

Drugs Acting Upon the Respiratory System 287 

Respiratory Stimulants 287 

Respiratory Depressants 288 

Expectorants 288 

Theory of Treatment of Cough 289 

CHAPTER XIV 

Diurectics 292 

CHAPTER XV 

Genito-Urinary Stimulants and Disinfectants 299 

Sedatives to Genito-Urinary System 309 

CHAPTER XVI 

Drugs Acting Upon the Genital Organs 310 

Emmenagogues and Ecbolics 310 

Uterine Sedatives 319 

Galactagogues 320 

Antigalactagogues 320 

Aphrodisiacs and Anaphrodisiacs 321 

CHAPTER XVII 

Diaphoretics and Antihydrotics 323 

Diaphoretics 323 

Antihydrotics 326 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Hemostatics or Styptics 327 

CHAPTER XIX 

Irritants and Counterirritants 332 

CHAPTER XX 

Caustics and Escharotics 344 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXI page 

Alkalies and Alkaline Earths 347 

Potassium 348 

Sodium 350 

Lithium 354 

Calcium 354 

Barium 357 

Magnesium 359 

Ammonia and Ammonium 360 

CHAPTER XXII 
Acids 364 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Group of Haloids or Halogens 371 

Bromine 371 

Chlorine ' 372 

Iodine 374 

Iodides 379 

Thyroid Gland 383 

CHAPTER XXIV 

Arsenic, Antimony and Phosphorus 385 

Arsenic 385 

Antimony 394 

Phosphorus 396 

CHAPTER XXV 

Salts of the Heavy Metals 401 

Iron 402 

Copper and Zinc 411 

Zinc 412 

Silver 415 

Bismuth 419 

Cerium 421 

Lead 421 

Mercury 426 

Manganese 435 

Chromium 435 

Aluminum '. 436 

CHAPTER XXVI 

Sulphur Compounds 439 

Sulphur 439 

Sulphites 442 

Ichthyol 443 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XXVII page 

Germicides and Disinfectants 445 

Heat 446 

Metals and Their Salts 446 

Benzene Derivatives (Phenol Group) . . . . . . . 447 

Aniline Derivatives 460 

Oxidizers and Deoxidizers 462 

Halogens 465 

Miscellaneous Disinfectants 466 

Therapeutic Classification of Disinfectants 472 

CHAPTER XXVIII 

Protectives 475 

Emollients 475 

Demulcents 478 

Dusting Powders 479 

CHAPTER XXIX 

Diagnostic Agents 482 

Tuberculin 482 

Mallein 483 

CHAPTER XXX 

Bacterins, Serums, Vaccines and Antitoxins 485 

Theories of Immunity 486 

Vaccines 489 

Bacterins 493 

Antitoxins 495 

Serums 496 

Sero Bacterins 498 

Phylacogens 498 



PRACTICAL VETERINARY PHARMA- 
COLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS 

CHAPTER I 
DEFINITIONS 

The terms Materia Medica, Pharmacognosy, Pharmacographia, 
Pharmacology and Pharmaco-dynamics used in the same general way 
have the same meaning. They may be broadly defined to cover all 
scientific knowledge concerning drugs. If it is desired to limit the 
meaning of the terms more specifically, they may be differentiated as 
follows : 

. 1. Materia Medica (Pharmacographia) deals with the physical 
and chemical properties of drugs, their sources, history, anatomy, 
pharmaceutic preparations and doses. 

(a) Organic Materia Medica was a term formerly used to desig- 
nate drugs obtained from the vegetable kingdom. 

(b) Inorganic Materia Medica was likewise used to designate 
those derived from the mineral kingdom. 

2. Pharmacology (Pharmaco-dynamics) treats of the action of 
drugs upon living organisms. 

3. Pharmacy is the science and art of preparing, compounding 
and dispensing drugs. It includes metrology (Weights and Meas- 
ures), manufacture and dispensing. 

4. Toxicology is the science which deals with the detection of 
poisons, their symptoms and treatment or antidotes. 

5. Therapeutics is that subject which deals with the methods 
used in the cure or alleviation of disease. In other words it is the 
application of pharmacology or materia medica and other sciences to 
the treatment of disease. 

A drug is any substance other than a food stuff or mechanical 
agent that produces change in a living organism. If used in doses 
suitable to produce beneficial effects, it is a Medicine, but if the dose 
is sufficiently large to produce harmful effects, it is a Poison. 

SOURCE AND COMPOSITION OF DRUGS 

Drugs are obtained from both organic and inorganic substances. 
The vegetable and biological preparations are obtained from the 
former, while the various metals and their salts, the composition of 

l 



2 DEFINITIONS 

which is shown by their names and chemical formulae, are obtained 
from the inorganic. The greater number, probably, are derived from 
the vegetable kingdom or from plants. All the different parts of a 
plant may be used in medicine but the active principle to which the 
action of each is due is usually found more abundantly in certain 
parts than others. In such cases the part or parts containing the 
largest amounts are used. The active principle may, however, be 
quite evenly diffused throughout, in which case the entire plant may 
be used. 

GROSS ANATOMY OF PLANTS 

Underground Portions. These include the root, rhizome, tuber, 
bulb and corm. The root is that portion usually without chlorophyll 
which does not have power to produce leaves. Roots sometimes 
possess a bark which is used separately (Sassafras). Rhizomes are 
the underground portions capable of producing leaves (Hydrastis). 
A tuber is a portion of the root greatly thickened which serves for the 
accumulation of reserve food materials (Aconite). A bulb is an 
increase in size of the root leaves (Onion, squill), while a corm is 
the thickened lowest part of the stem (Colchicum). 

Portions above Ground. If the entire plant above ground is 
used, it is termed herb (Herba, Species) and consists of the leaves, 
stems, and sometimes of the flowers and fruit. 

Stem. In herby plants it is termed stipes, in larger plants it is 
transformed into wood (Lignum) and covered with a bark (cortex). 
The leaves (folia) consist of a leaf stem (petiolus) and blade 
(lamina). There are also the flowers (flores), and fruit (fructus) 
or seed (semenis). Besides the above, certain drugs consist of the 
juices of plants and are without definite structure (Opium, aloes). 

CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS 

The chief elements found in plants are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxy- 
gen and Nitrogen. These elements usually occur in combinations as 
fats, carbohydrates, tannins, resins, alkaloids, glucosides, acids, ter- 
penes, etc., together with inorganic salts. 

ALKALOIDS 

Many of the most important and active plant constituents are 
alkaloids. They may exist in almost any part of the plant but are 
frequently found in the largest proportions in the seed and roots. 
They represent, in the greater number of cases, the active principle 
of the plant from which they are obtained and many of them are 
classed with the most powerful poisons. 

Definition. Alkaloids may be defined as natural-nitrogenous 
organic bases, i.e., they are organic substances containing nitrogen, 



CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS 3 

of basic character, uniting with acids without the elimination of 
hydrogen, forming well defined and usually crystalline salts. The 
alkaloidal salts of the halogens are called the hydrobromides, hydro- 
chlorides, etc., not the bromides, chlorides, etc. They contain nitro- 
gen, carbon, hydrogen, and most of them oxygen. Those containing 
oxygen are solids and comparatively non volatile (cocaine), while 
those which do not contain oxygen are liquids and volatile (nicotine). 
Characteristics. All alkaloids have certain characteristics: 
Bitter taste, alkaline reaction to litmus, strong physiological reaction 
and cause no post mortem changes. The pure alkaloids differ from 
their salts in solubility. The alkaloids are freely soluble in chloro- 
form, ether, and oils, less soluble in alcohol and almost insoluble in 
water, while the salts behave almost exactly opposite, being soluble 
in water and alcohol and almost insoluble in chloroform, ether and 

oils. 

Nomenclature. The United States Pharmacopoeia makes all the 
names of alkaloids end in ine (Latin, ina) as quinine (quinina), 
morphine (morphina), to distinguish them from the neutral prin- 
ciples ending in in (Latin, inum) as digitalin (digitalinum), santonin 
(santoninum). This is a very simple way in which to distinguish 
these principles, and it is to be regretted that this distinctive spelling is 
not followed in all text-books. 

Incompatibles. Alkaloids are incompatible with many sub- 
stances and it is necessary to know the chief substances with which 
they are incompatible in order to prescribe them intelligently. The 
most common incompatibles are : 

1. Alkalies which combine with the acid radicle and throw down 
the less soluble pure alkaloids as a precipitate, while some alkaloids 
are destroyed by strong alkalies. 

2. Tannic Acid which forms comparatively insoluble tannates.^ 

3. Iodine, Iodides and Bromides which form comparatively in- 
soluble iodides, bromides or double salts. 

4. Mercuric Chloride which forms insoluble double salts. 

In all the above cases, the alkaloids are simply rendered less 
soluble in water, and if a large volume of water or fair percentage 
of alcohol is present, the precipitation will not occur. 

Besides the alkaloids there are several other active principles of 
plants which should be mentioned. Those with neither acid nor 
basic characters are called "neutral principles." If they arenot 
very poisonous and have a very bitter taste, they are termed " bitter 
principles." They differ from glycosides in not being converted into 
glucose and from alkaloids in not being precipitated by tannin or 
mercuric potassium iodide. 

Glucosides are those principles or substances derived from plants 
which when treated with dilute acids or submitted to the action of 
ferments split into glucose as one of the decomposition products. 



4 DEFINITIONS 

They do not all contain nitrogen. A few are alkaloidal, but most 
are neutral. 

Resins are solid plant substances or exudations usually acid in 
character, insoluble in water, soluble in water and an alkali. The 
definition of the pharmaceutic class — " resins " — is those plant 
products soluble in alcohol and insoluble in water, obtained either as 
a residue from the distillation of an oleoresin or by pouring a concen- 
trated alcoholic extract of the drug into water or acidulated water. 

If they occur mixed with a volatile oil they are termed oleoresins. 

Gum Resins are mixtures of a gum and a resin or oleoresin. 

Gums are desiccated exudations obtained by incising the limbs 
and branches of certain plants. They form a mucilage or jelly with 
water, and are insoluble in alcohol. The most important are acacia 
and tragacanth. 

Balsams are natural products differing from oleoresins in con- 
taining benzoic or cinnamic acids to which the delightful odor is 
due. Chief are Tulu and Peru. 

Resinoids are principles soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water. 
They are often mixtures containing true resins. 

Oils. These occur as fixed and volatile or essential. An oil is 
a substance which greases, which leaves when dropped on a cloth a 
stain which water will not wash out, a stain which makes paper 
translucent. They are termed fixed or volatile, according to the 
permanency of this stain on warming, characters clearly defined by 
the names given the two groups. If a drop of the oil is placed upon 
paper and warmed over a flame, the stain disappears if it is a 
volatile oil, while if a fixed oil, the stain remains. A very simple 
test is the action of a ground glass stopper, of a bottle containing the 
oil. The stopper of a bottle of fixed oil rotates easily and quietly in 
the neck, whereas a volatile oil stopper, when rotated in the neck, 
makes a squeaking noise. 

Volatile oils are odorous principles, of the physical characteristics 
of fixed oils, from which they differ by being soluble in alcohol and 
by being volatile. To them is due the odor of plants. Volatile oils 
are called essential oils from the fact that they possess, in a concen- 
trated state, the properties of plants from which they are obtained. 
They are mixtures of a number of substances and it so happens 
in some cases that some of the substances are solids dissolved in the 
liquid portion. These solids may sometimes be removed by chilling 
the oil in a freezing mixture and draining off the unfrozen part (the 
eleopten), leaving the solid part or stearopten. In other words 
stearoptens are the solid portions of volatile oils. Examples : Cam- 
phor, Menthol, Thymol. 

Saponins and Sapotoxins are neutral nonnitrogenous bodies 
characterized by foaming with water, emulsifying fats, and laking 
red blood cells. A few are glucosides. The former term is given to 



CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS 



the less poisonous, and the latter to the more poisonous of the group. 
Besides the previously mentioned substances the juice of plants 
contains many other substances, such as alcohols, aldehydes, ethers, 
acids, aromatic bodies, coloring matter and a certain amount of 
mineral matter. 



CHAPTER II 
PHARMACY 

Pharmacy is the science and art of preparing, compounding and 
dispensing drugs. The objects of pharmacy are so obvious that they 
need not be pointed out in this place. In order to have uniformity 
in the preparations obtained from the different shops, practically 
all civilized countries have standards, established by law, to which 
the drugs and their preparations must conform. 

Pharmacopoeia. The books in which these standards are given 
are usually called pharmacopoeias. The first pharmacopoeia of the 
United States was published in 1820 and is revised every ten years 
by a committee of physicians and pharmacists. The preparations 
made according to this book are called official. The present Ninth 
Decennial revision appeared in August and became official in Sep- 
tember, 1916. The pharmacopoeia gives, first, the Latin title of the 
drug, followed by the English name, official abbreviation and syno- 
nyms. A short concise definition of the drug is given. This is 
followed by the characteristics and tests by which the identity and 
purity of the drug may be recognized and finally in what doses 
(human) it may be administered. 

Since the pharmacopoeia is intended as a concise standard work of 
reference, it does not include all the material used in medicine nor 
does it go into detail concerning the drugs treated. Consequently in 
various countries other books have come into use, namely, dispen- 
satories. 

Dispensatories are commentaries on the pharmacopoeia. They 
contain all that the pharmacopoeia states regarding official drugs and 
much added information. They also treat of other drugs not men- 
tioned in the pharmacopoeia. There are three in the U. S. : — The 
National, United States and King's dispensatories. 

In addition to the above books, there is the National Eormulary, 
which contains formula? not included in the pharmacopoeia, but of 
sufficient importance to render standardization desirable. It is pub- 
lished by the American Pharmaceutical Association. Preparations 
made according to this book are generally designated as, N. F. They 
were recognized as official by the National Pure Drug Act passed 
June 30, 1906. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



METROLOGY— WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

Metrology is the science of weights and measures. 

Weight is the sum of the attraction of gravity existing between 
the earth and a body upon its surface, and in weighing we simply 
balance a substance against another known force. 

There are several standards of weights used in the United States, 
with which the physician, veterinarian and pharmacist must become 
familiar. Those most used are the Troy or Apothecaries' weights 
and the Wine or Apothecaries' measures, besides which are the Avoir- 
dupois weights, and Metric weights and measures. 

TABLE OF AVOIRDUPOIS W T EIGHTS 

437.5 grains (gr.) = 1 ounce (oz.) 
16 oz. = 1 pound (lb.) = (7000 gr.) 

100 lbs. — 1 hundredweight (cwt.) 

20 cwt. = 1 ton 

This table is never used in prescribing but is the one used almost 
exclusively in buying and selling all solid and many liquid drugs. 
When we purchase a " pound " we get an Avoirdupois pound, or 7000 
grains. If we order an " oz.," we receive an Avoirdupois ounce 
or 437.5 grains, as oz. stands for Avoirdupois ounce only. Many 
powerful drugs, like strychnine, morphine, etc., are usually handled 
in Ys oz. bottles, but these do not contain Vs of an Apothecaries' ounce 
or 60 grains, but Vs of an Avoirdupois ounce or about 54.7 grains. 

TABLE OF APOTHECARIES* OR TROY WEIGHTS 

20 grains (gr.) = 1 scruple (3) 

3 scruples = 1 drachm (3) = 60 gr. 

8 drachms = 1 ounce (3) == 480 gr. 

12 ounces = 1 pound (lb) = 5760 gr. 

The grain used in this system is the same as that of the Avoirdu- 
pois, but the ounces contain 480 grains against 437.5 of the Avoir- 
dupois, while the pound, lb. contains 12 ounces of 480 grains, or 
5760 grains, instead of the Avoirdupois pound of 16 ounces of 437.5 
each or 7000 grains. 

Of this table only the grains, drachms and ounces should be used 
in prescription writing. The scruple was used at one time, but is 
largely in disuse at the present time and is unnecessary. Further- 
more the character is not easily made, and if made carelessly or 
blurred may be mistaken for the drachm sign. 

TABLE OF APOTHECARIES* (or WINe) MEASURES 
60 Minims (Til) = 1 fiuidrachm (f3) 

8 Fluidrachms = 1 fluidounce (fS) 480 ms. 

16 Fluidounces = 1 pint (O.) 7680 ms. 

8 pints = 1 gallon (Cong.) 61440 ms. 



8 PHARMACY 

To avoid confusion in the use of the Apothecary and Avoirdupois 
systems, the symbols, lb., q, 5, and 9 should be consistently used for 
the apothecary and the abbreviations, lb., oz., gr., for the Avoir- 
dupois. The abbreviation for the Troy pound is characterized by 
the cross line drawn through the letters, lb., and should always mean 
12 ounces, while the Avoirdupois pound stands for sixteen ounces. 
The symbol 5 means an Apothecaries' ounce of 480 grains, while 
the abbreviation oz., means an Avoirdupois ounce of 437.5 grains. 
The grain weight is the same for both systems and therefore the ab- 
breviation gr. will cause no confusion. The grain is, therefore, the 
unit for both systems and the term is derived from the old system of 
weighing, which required that there should be used a grain of wheat, 
well dried and from the middle of the ear (head). 

The character f3 represents 60 minims, and fo is necessary to 
represent 480 minims. 

A minim of water weighs about one grain (0.95 gr.) but it should 
be remembered that a minim is not the equivalent of a grain. 480 
minims (lfo) of water weighed at the standard temperature of 25° C. 
(77° F.) weigh 454.6 grains. The specific gravity of liquids also 
varies so that a pint of liquid is not necessarily a pound. In writing 
the Apothecaries' weights and measures in prescriptions, the figures 
are written in the Roman system and placed after the symbol, as 
gr..XX not 20 grs. In printed matter the small letters are used, 
but in writing it is better to use the capital L, because the small 
letter might easily be mistaken for an i. The ones should always be 
dotted and the last one may be written like a j ; thus § iij. But 
under no circumstances should the other be dotted, because in a hastily 
written or blurred prescription the pharmacist often depends upon the 
dots to differentiate an indistinct i from an 1 or a comma or period, or 
from an imperfectly formed v. Fractions are written as common 
fractions: gr. %o, not gr. 0.1. The f before the sign 5 or § is often 
omitted. 

TABLE OF APPROXIMATE OR POPULAR MEASURES 

The popular measures are those usually found in the household. 
They are very inexact, and should be replaced with measuring glasses 
or some other means of measure. A common method in veterinary 
medicine is to use homeopathic vials of certain capacities, or syringes 
of known capacity. If spoons are used they should be filled so that 
the fluid stands level with the rim. 

The most common of these measures are : 

1 drop (git.) = 1 minim 

1 tea spoonful = 1 f 3 

1 dessertspoonful= 2 f3 

1 tablespoonful = 4 f 3 (i/ 2 5) 

1 wineglassful = 2 f 3 

1 teacupful = 4 f 3 

1 glassful = 8 f I 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 9 

It should be kept in mind that these equivalents are only approxi- 
mate. A drop is not a minim and varies greatly with the character 
of the fluid, and of the container from which dropped ; there may 
be from 44 drops of syrup of acacia, to 250 drops of chloroform to 
the drachm. Teaspoons vary from ^ to 2 drachms, dessert spoons 
vary so greatly that they should not be used. Tablespoons, wine- 
glasses and tumblers also vary. 

It is usual in figuring prescriptions to figure from 6 to 8 tea- 
spoonfuls to the ounce, a tablespoonful as one-half ounce and in 
writing prescriptions these factors should always be taken into ac- 
count so that the druggist will be able to use a bottle which will 
hold just the amount desired. Their bottles are */£ ounce, one ounce, 
two, three, four, six, eight and sixteen ounces. 

METRIC SYSTEM 

This is based upon the decimal system. The unit of measure 
of distance of the metric system is the meter (M.) (39.37 inches). 
The meter is divided into 10, 100 and 1000 parts, called respectively, 
decimeter, dm. ; centimeter, cm. ; and millimeter, mm. 

The unit of measure of capacity is the liter, 1. It is equal to 
the contents of a cube whose edges measure a decimeter and the 
thousandth part of this is a milliliter (mil) formerly called a cubic 
centimeter (c.cm. or c.c). The unit of weight is the Gramme (fre- 
quently written gram) which is the weight of one milliliter of water 
at 4° Centigrade (39.2° F.). 

Greater or less quantities are designated by adding prefixes to 
the above. 

TABLE OF METRIC WEIGHTS 

1 milligram = 0.001 

10 milligrams = 1 centigram (eg.) 0.01 

10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg.) 0.1 

10 decigrams = 1 gram (gm.) 1. 

10 grams = 1 Dekagram (Dg.) 10. 

10 Dekagrams — 1 Hectogram (Hg.) 100. 

10 Hectograms = 1 Kilogram (Kg.) 1000. 

TABLE OF METRIC MEASURES 

1 milliliter (mil) = 0.001 

10 milliliters (mils) = 1 centiliter (cl.) 0.01 

10 centiliters = 1 deciliter (dl.) 0.1 

10 deciliters = 1 Liter (L.) 1. 

10 Liters = 1 Dekaliter (DL.) 10. 

10 Dekaliters = 1 Hectoliter (HL.) 100. 

10 Hectoliters = 1 Kiloliter (KL.) 1000. 

In the above tables of weights and measures, the kilogramme is 
used in commerce and is referred to as a Kilo. The gram, fractions 



10 PHARMACY 

of a gram and milligrams are used. In the measures of quantity 
the Liter and milliliter and fractions of them are used. 

In prescription writing only two units, grams and milliliters, 
are used, abbreviated gm. and mil. In expressing the quantity of 
drug in a prescription in the metric system, the quantity is always 
denoted by the Arabic figure placed before the appellation. Frac- 
tional parts are always converted into decimal fractions. It is not 
necessary to write grams, or milliliters or their abbreviations, in a 
prescription because it is understood that the former will be used 
as the unit of weight and the latter for the unit of measure. 

TABLE 



E OF APPROXIMATELY EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 


1 milligram (mil) 


0.001 


r= 


%4 grain 


1 centigram 




0.01 


= 


Ve grain 


1 decigram 




0.1 


= 


l 1 ^ grains 


1 gram 




1. 


= 


15% (15.432) grains 


4 grams 


( 


3.9) 


= 


1 drachm 


31 grams 


( 


31.1) 


= 


1 ounce 


500 grams 


(453.6) 


= 


1 pound (av.) 


1 Kilogram 






= 


2.2 pounds (av.) (2.2946) 


1/64 grain 






= 


.001 gram 


1/6 grain 






= 


.01 gram 


1 grain 






= 


0.065 gram 


15 V 2 (15.432) 


grains 


= 


1. gram 


1 drachm (apoth.) 




= 


4. (3.9) grams 


1 ounce (apoth.) 




= 


31.1 grams 


1 minim 






— 


0.61 mil 


16 minims (16.23) 




= 


1. • mil 


1 fluidrachm 






= 


3. 75 mils 


1 fluidounce 






= 


30. (29.572) mils 


1 pint 






= 


500. (.4731 L. or 473 mils 



THE FOLLOWING TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS 
SHOULD BE MEMORIZED : 

■*■ mi * = 15-16 minims or grains 

1 gram 

4 mi ^ s — 1 fluidrachm or drachm 

4 grams 

30 mils = i fl u idounce or ounce 

30 grams 

500 mils = 1 pint or pound 

500 grams 

1 Liter = 1 quart 

1 Kgm. = 2.2 lbs. 

To convert grains into centigrams, multiply by 6.5. Thus 3 
grains multiplied by 6.5 equals 10.5 centigrams, or 10 grains equal 
65 centigrams or .65 grams. To convert centigrams into grains, 
divide by 6.5. Thus 26 centigrams divided by 6.5 equals 4 grains. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 11 



WEIGHING 

In weighing a body we simply balance the force it exerts by 
its gravity against another known force. There are several types 
of balances or scales, — spring, equal arm, unequal arm, and torsion. 
The first is not very exact but is handy for coarse weighing. In 
weighing small amounts delicate instruments should be used. A 
few simple rules should always be followed. 

1. Balance pans before starting weighing. 

2. Drugs should not be placed directly on scale pans. These 
should first be covered with pieces of paper. The opposite pan 
should be balanced by a piece of paper of equal weight. Unless 
the pans are equally balanced in this manner, serious mistakes may 
occur in weighing small amounts. The object of the paper on the 
pans is two fold. It keeps the pan clean and insures freedom from 
contamination with some previously weighed drug. 

3. Balance accurately with material to be weighed. When a 
pointer is provided on the balance, it should swing an equal distance 
each side of the center or zero. 

4. Always throw balance off center when through weighing. This 
stops the movements of the balance and consequently stops its wear. 

5. In weighing liquids, tare (weigh) or balance the container 
first. 

MEASURING 

This is done in graduated vessels (graduates), graduated or 
measuring flasks and pipettes. The wider the vessel at the place of 
reading the greater is the liability to error. On this account greater 
accuracy can be obtained if the vessel is as narrow as possible where 
the reading is taken. The minim graduate is not accurate for 
measuring small amounts, as a considerable amount of the measured 
liquid is retained in the vessel by capillarity. A minim pipette is 
to be preferred for this purpose and also for the fact that there is 
less error in pouring more or less than the required amount into the 
graduate. 

The cylindrical graduate has the advantage that equal accuracy 
can be obtained throughout while the conical shaped graduate has 
the advantage of greater accuracy for small amounts. A few rules 
for measuring should always be followed. 

1. Hold the graduate so that the top of the liquid is a horizontal 
plane perpendicular to the long axis of the graduate and have the 
top of the liquid on a level with the eye. 

2. On account of capillarity, the surface is always cupped, 
forming a meniscus. The reading should always be taken at the 
lowest level of the meniscus. 



CHAPTER III 
PHARMACEUTIC METHODS 

There are several processes in the manufacture of pharmaceutic 
preparations, and these vary with the nature of the crude drug and 
the character of the desired product. These processes are : 

Desiccation or Drying. This is usually the first step in the 
preparation of crude drugs. It has three advantages: it reduces 
bulk, assists preservation, and facilitates comminution. Drying was 
formerly done by storing in a dry, airy loft, but now most of it is 
done in special ovens. The degree of heat must not be high enough 
to destroy any of the desired or unstable ingredients. The next 
step is that of comminution. 

Comminution. This is the reduction of the drug to smaller 
fragments. This process is now mainly done by machinery, quite 
similar to that used in grist or flouring mills. On a small scale the 
drug mill, which is similar in action to the coffee mill, may be used. 
The grinding has to be repeated several times in case of some drugs 
to get the powder fine enough. The mortar and pestle are used for 
friable substances. These are made of glass, wedgewood, porcelain 
and iron. 

Trituration. Trituration is employed where a finer powder 
is desired than can be obtained with a mill. It consists of rubbing 
with a rotary motion, not pounding, the substance in a mortar with 
a pestle. Some substances will not powder alone but will if mixed 
with another substance (pulverization by intervention), — sugar of 
milk. Sometimes the substance requires moistening, as camphor 
with alcohol. 

Certain drugs percolate better if used in a certain degree of 
fineness. They are, therefore, sifted and classified accordingly. If 
a very fine powder is desired of an insoluble substance, it may be 
mixed into a thick paste with water or alcohol and rubbed between 
two polished slabs (Levigation) or placed on a marble slab, moist- 
ened with alcohol or water and rubbed with a muller. In rubbing, 
a circular or figure eight motion should be used. 

Separation. This is usually the next step in the preparation 
of drugs. Its purpose is to separate the desired ingredients from 
the inert or undesired. It may be accomplished in three ways. If 
the desired ingredients are volatile, they may be driven off by heat, 
i.e., by distillation or sublimation. If the substances are not 
volatile, the separation is usually done by exposing the crude drugs 

12 



PHARMACEUTIC METHODS 13 

to the action of some solvent in which the desired ingredients are 
soluble and the undesirable, so far as possible, insoluble. The third 
method is by mechanical means as in the case of fixed oils where the 
separation is done by pressure. 

Separation by Heat. This method can be used whenever the 
substances to be separated have different boiling points, and are not 
destroyed by the necessary degree of heat. This process differs as 
to whether the fixed or volatile portion is desired and if the latter, ac- 
cording as to whether it is a solid or liquid. The different processes 
of using heat are: distillation, sublimation, carbonization, ignition, 
desiccation and torrefaction. 

Distillation. This is the process of converting a liquid into a 
gas and condensing the gas back again into a liquid. The apparatus 
necessary is some receptacle for heating the liquid, conducting off 
and condensing the gas. The ordinary worm still is a good ex- 
ample. Its purpose is to separate volatile from non-volatile agents 
and for purifying volatile substances. It may be divided into frac- 
tional, which means a separation of a mixture of liquids, and destruc- 
tive, where the substances are heated so strongly that they decompose 
and the volatile products which arise from the decomposition are 
saved. (Organic bodies as tar.) 

Sublimation. This is a process exactly similar to distillation 
with the exception that solids are used instead of liquids. Usually 
the air is sufficient to cool and condense the vapors. (Benzoic acid, 
camphor, iodine.) 

Desiccation. The object of desiccation is to drive off some 
undesired volatile substance from a solid, the fixed residue being 
the portion desired. If the heat is not sufficient to change the chemi- 
cal composition, the process is termed desiccation. It simply means 
drying. 

Carbonization. This is the process of heating organic sub- 
stances under the exclusion of air. Its object is to change the 
chemical composition without oxidation. (Charcoal.) 

Ignition. This is the process of strongly heating a substance, 
usually in a crucible, with full access to air, so as to complete oxida- 
tion. Nothing but ashes is left. 

Torrefaction. This means roasting. The object is to employ 
sufficient heat to alter some of the constituents without affecting 
others. (Coffee, peanuts.) 

Evaporation. This consists in vaporizing a solvent from a 
solution. The object is concentration of the desired dissolved sub- 
stance. 

Solution. This may be defined as the process of incorporating 
a solid into a liquid state of molecular subdivision, the result be- 
ing a clear homogeneous fluid. In this case the molecules of the 
solid are diffused throughout the liquid, and are so widely sepa- 



14 PHARMACY 

rated that no solid particles are in any way discernible. In other 
words, the solid is liquefied, and its molecules intermingle with 
those of the liquid (solvent). Solutions may be classified as simple, 
chemical, unsaturated, saturated, and supersaturated. A simple 
solution is one occurring as described above. No chemical change 
is made. A chemical solution where chemical action takes place. 
Unsaturated where the solvent contains less of the substance than 
it will dissolve. Saturated when it contains all that it will dissolve, 
and supersaturated when some means is employed to make the liquid 
dissolve more of the substance than the usual amount of the solid. 
Example, heat in most cases, or hydrochloric acid with corrosive 
sublimate. 

The process of solution is applied to most organic drugs for the 
purpose of separating the active ingredients from the insoluble inert. 
The object is to dissolve the greatest amount of solid with the least 
possible liquid (menstruum). It accomplishes two purposes. 1. 
It gives a strong extract and (2) wastes no menstruum. Solution 
may be accomplished in various ways. All are combinations of two 
extremes, maceration and percolation, usually in the United States 
of both. 

Maceration. This is simpler than percolation. It consists in 
simply leaving the drug in contact with the menstruum under suit- 
able conditions, for a certain, or sufficient length of time. If macer- 
ation alone is used, a definite amount of the drug is placed in a con- 
tainer with a definite amount or portion of the menstruum and left 
a certain time, in many cases two weeks. The liquid is then strained 
off, the residue (marc) expressed and the mixed extract filtered. 

The process is influenced by (1) degree of comminution. The 
finer the drug the less time is required. (2) The higher the tem- 
perature the quicker the solution. Different terms are given to 
the process according to the degree of temperature employed. 
Maceration is at room temperature, Digestion at 30°-40° C, Decoc- 
tion, at boiling temperature. The application of heat is objection- 
able in certain cases because it injures some of the desired constit- 
uents or on account of the evaporation of either the constituent 
or solvent. (3) Time. Usually the longer the better. (4) Men- 
struum. This must in each case be adapted to the particular drug. 

Percolation. Percolation or displacement is the process 
whereby a powder contained in a suitable vessel is deprived of its 
soluble constituents by the descent of a solvent through it. (Rem- 
ington.) 

The solvent, which is poured on the top of the powder, in pass- 
ing downward exercises its solvent power on the successive layers 
of the powder until saturated, and is impelled downward by the 
combined force of its own gravity and that of the column of liquid 
above it, minus the capillary force with which the powder tends 



PHARMACEUTIC METHODS 15 

to retain it. A percolator is a vessel with a porous diaphragm be- 
low, into which the drug, in the form of a powder, is introduced 
and its soluble portions extracted by the descent of the solvent 
through it. The menstruum or solvent is the liquid poured on top 
of the powder. The liquid coming from the percolator, impregnated 
with the soluble constituents of the drug, is the percolate. 

The first portion of the percolate is always more dense, more 
highly colored and contains the largest proportion of the soluble 
principles, because the first proportion of the menstruum, in its de- 
scent through the powder, has the first opportunity to come in contact 
with the largest proportion of the soluble principles which are to be 
found in the finer dust scattered through the powder, and in the 
thoroughly disintegrated particles, which offer but slight resistance 
to the passage of the menstruum. When successfully conducted, 
the first portion of the percolate will be nearly saturated with the 
soluble constituents of the substance treated; if the quantity of 
the menstruum be sufficient for its exhaustion, the last portion of 
the percolate will be destitute of color, odor and taste, other than 
that possessed by the menstruum itself. 

The general rule in percolation is to moisten the powder. The 
reason for this is that most drugs are vegetable substances which 
in their natural state were moist. The process of desiccation has 
hardened and dried the tissues, so that they do not absorb mois- 
ture quickly, and when compressed, as they are when packed in a 
percolator, the resistance is still greater. If a dry powder is tightly 
packed in a glass percolator and water poured upon it, the water 
will penetrate the powder but a short distance. Its further passage 
is prevented by the particles which are immediately in contact with 
the water, which have become swollen to such a degree that they 
press tightly against the sides of the percolator, and thus entirely 
overcome the gravitating force and penetrating power of the 
water. If, on the other hand, the powder is moistened with suffi- 
cient water to satisfy its tendency to swell, before it is packed in 
the percolator, the addition of water is followed by its slow eolation 
through the mass without stoppage. A moist powder, like a moist 
sponge, greedily absorbs moisture, but a dry powder, like a dry 
sponge, repels attempts to moisten it. 

Care should be used in preparing and packing a percolator, 
because upon this process largely depends the success of the opera- 
tion. The powder should be packed firmly or moderately as directed. 
If packed too firmly the menstruum will not pass through readily, 
if not packed firmly enough the menstruum will pass through too 
quickly and the full strength of the drug will not be obtained; if 
packed unevenly, the menstruum will pass readily through one side 
of the mass and not come in contact with the other at all. The 
menstruum should descend uniformly and slowly through the drug. 



16 PHARMACY 

Expression. This is the process of separating a liquid from 
a solid by pressure. It is especially used in pharmacy for the pur- 
pose of separating a liquid from a drug residue (marc) left after 
percolating or in separating fixed oils. The ordinary tincture or 
fruit press may be taken as an example. 

Colation, or Straining. This is the process of separating solid, 
coarse particles from a liquid by pouring through a cloth or strainer. 

Filtration. This is the process of separating fine or coarse, solid 
particles from a liquid by pouring it through a finely porous material, 
such as a filter paper. 

Decantation. This means simply carefully pouring off most of 
the liquid portion, leaving the rest in the vessel. By repeating the 
process several times and adding more solvent each time, practically 
all the soluble material may be removed from the precipitate. 

Clarification. This is the process of rendering turbid materials 
clear and transparent by removing the suspended solid bodies. 
Often when the solid particles cannot be removed by the filter, they 
may be removed by agitating them with some insoluble powder, or 
by adding egg albumen or shredded filter paper and by boiling or 
by centrifuge. 



CHAPTEK IV 
DISPENSING 

In dispensing medicines, every attention should be given to 
have the package neat and attractive. While any bottle or paper 
will serve in an emergency, we should so far as possible provide 
good, clean, unlabeled bottles, not old beer bottles, whiskey flasks, 
or patent medicine bottles, and dispense them wrapped in clean, 
new paper. Powders should always be placed in uniform paper 
and folded evenly, then wrapped in a neat package, or better still, 
dispensed in boxes of suitable size. These in turn should be neatly 
wrapped. 

Powders-Chartae. These are preparations of solid drugs in 
a fine state of division for external or internal use. Usually they 
are combinations of two or more drugs, and frequently one of the 
drugs only serves as a diluent or base. The drugs are usually mixed 
by triturating with a mortar and pestle although there are machines 
for this purpose. In mixing the materials, care should be taken 
to get the ingredients thoroughly and uniformly mixed. The mix- 
ing should be done by placing the smallest amount of the mixture 
in a mortar, triturating it with the next drug, then triturate after 
the addition of each drug. When individual powders are to be 
dispensed, the required number of papers, previously creased, 
should be placed upon the table and the mixture transferred to 
them with a spatula. After all the mixture has been transferred 
to the papers, the amount in each should be equalized, so far as 
possible by the eye. This method of division at best is only approxi- 
mate and for exact work each powder should be weighed. Another 
very good method to divide the powder is to arrange it upon a 
smooth surface in the form of an elongated rectangle, and then 
divide this mass into equal portions with a spatula and transfer each 
portion to a paper. 

To Fold Powders. This is learned very quickly and easily with 
a little practice. It consists of first laying the required number of 
papers upon a table or other smooth surface. Each paper should 
be provided with a fold of equal size at the top. After the powders 
have been placed upon the papers, the next step is to bring the bot- 
tom of the paper up to the crease already made. The flap of the 
crease is then bent down. Another fold is then made at the flap. 
Finally all that remains is to fold and crease the ends so that each 
powder is equal in length. They may be equalized in length by 

17 



18 



PHARMACY 



breaking over the edge of a box or powder folder or the ends may 
be made to meet in each case. Papers may be folded upon either 
their long or short axis. Most people prefer to fold them upon 
their long axis although some prefer the other way for large powders. 
The chief advantages of the latter method are that a smaller paper 
is required and that the powder will be much flatter and conse- 
quently more easily wrapped. The following figures represent the 
various steps folding on both the long and short axis of the paper. 




I 




cC. 



oC 



<q|| jpp> 



Fig. 1. — Folding powders. 



After the powders have all been folded and smoothed down, 
they should be packed with the flaps alternating. This method 
of stacking saves a considerable amount of bulging and springing 
out of the powders under pressure. 

Pills and Tablets should be dispensed in small envelopes, or if 
in boxes a small amount of absorbent cotton should be placed upon 
them in the box to prevent rattling. The boxes should be wrapped 
neatly. 

To Wrap Round Boxes. Fig. 2. Place box on paper, bring 
two opposite ends together, fold and make a crease about one-half 



DISPENSING 19 

inch in width. Then make a second fold on the first crease. This 

should bring the paper firmly around the edge of the box. Fold 
paper around the rest of the box and tie. 




Fig. 2. — Wrapping round boxes. 

(Reproduced by permission, from Amy's Principles of Pharmacy. Published by W. B. 

Saunders and Co.) 

Oblong and Square Boxes (Fig. 3) are folded in much the 
same way. The first two steps are identical, except that the ends 




Fig. 3. — Wrapping oblong boxes. 

(Reproduced by permission, from Amy's Principles of Pharmacy. 

Saunders and Co.) 



Published by W. B. 



are to be folded in tightly against the ends of the box. A string is 
then passed two ways around the box and tied. 

Packages. Fig. 4. In folding packages, first bring up two 



20 



PHARMACY 



opposite sides and crease evenly as in wrapping boxes. Fold this 
crease over on itself. Then temporarily close one end. Stand 
package on this end and carefully crease and fold the opposite end 
away from the flap. The package is then reversed, the other end 




i is) 




1 T 1 






^C2^ === ' 


■— ___^y 



Fig. 4. — Folding packages. 

(Reproduced by permission, from Amy's Principles of Pharmacy. Published by W. B. 

Saunders and Co.) 

reopened and closed the same as the first one. Tie around both 
ways. This is similar to folding powders, and is used by some for 
that purpose, although a uniform size cannot be so easily obtained 
as where the papers are creased. 

Bottles. Fig. 5. To wrap bottles. Make the first two folds 
as in case of wrapping a box. The open edge at the base is then 




Fig. 5. Wrapping bottles. 

(Reproduced by permission, from Amy's Principles of Pharmacy. Published by W. B. 

Saunders and Co.) 

folded in flaps. The paper around the neck should be creased and 
folded in flaps. Tie around both ways. 

Labelling 1 . Write labels plainly and neatly. 



CHAPTEK V 
PHARMACY PROPER 

The United States Pharmacopoeia divides its preparations into 
certain groups which have been established by long usage. They 
may be tabulated as follows : 

LIQUID PREPARATIONS 

1. Solutions of volatile substances. 

Aqueous Aquse (waters) 

Alcoholic Spiritus (spirits) 

2. Solutions of non-volatile substances. 

a. Simple solutions. 

Aqueous Liquores (solutions) 
Aqueous (Viscid) 

(Mucilaginous) Muciiagines, Mucilages 

Aqueous Saccharine Syrupi (syrups) 

Mellifluous Mellatse (honeys) 

Alcoholic Tinctures except tincture of 

Iodine 

Alcoholic Saccharine Elixirs 

Glycerinic Glycerites 

Ethereal Collodia 

Oleaginous Oleates 



\^' 



b. Made by maceration or percolation. 

Aqueous Infusions and decoctions 

Alcoholic Tinctures and fluid extracts 

Vinous Wines 

Ethereal Oleoresins 

Acetous Vinegars 

3. Liquids containing undissolved matter. 

a. Internal use. 

Aqueous with neither oil nor resin-Mixtures 
Aqueous with either oil or resin-Emulsions 

b. External use. 

Oleaginous Liniments 

21 



PHARMACY 



SOLID PREPARATIONS 

1. Made by maceration or percolation. 

A. Evaporation Extracta (extracts) 

B. Precipitation Resinse (resins) 

2. Made without maceration or percolation. 

a. For administration by mouth in undivided portions. 

Pulverized Chart® or powders 

Semisolid masses Mass® or masses 

Semisolid (sweet) Confections 

b. Individual doses. 

Globular masses Pilula? or pills 

Disk-like doses Troches 

c. By rectum Suppositories 

d. For external use. 
Greasy masses used as 

Plaster Cerates 

By inunction Unguenta (ointments) 

Moist masses Cataplasma (poultices) 

Sticky masses Plasters 

Spread on or absorbed 

by paper Chartse 

UNOFFICIAL PREPARATIONS 

Tabellse — Tablets, 

Tablet — Triturates 

Tablets — Hypodermic 

Tablets — Dispensing 

Tablets — Compressed 

Tablets — Coated 
Boli-Balls— (Sing. Bolus) 
Haustus — Drench 
Electuaria — Electuary 

AQUAE 

Waters are aqueous solutions of volatile substances. They differ 
from spirits, which are alcoholic solutions, and from liquores, which 
are aqueous solutions of non-volatile substances. There are twenty 
official waters and a general formula for aromatic waters in the 
Pharmacopoeia of 1910. 

They are divided into three classes according to their method of 
preparation: 1, Simple solution. 2, Filtration through an absorb- 



AQUAE — WATERS 23 

ent powder. 3, Distillation. The following table mentions the offi- 
cial waters and designates the manner of preparation of each : 

Simple solution or dilution 

Aqua Amygdalae Amarse — Bitter almond 
Aqua Aurantii Florum — Orange flowers 
Aqua Chlorof ormi — Chloroform 
Aqua Creosoti — Creosote 
Aqua Rosse — Rose 

Filtration 

Aqua Anisi — Anise 

Aqua Camphorse — Camphor 

Aqua Cinnamomi — Cinnamon 

Aqua Foeniculi — Fennel 

Aqua Menthae Piperita? — Peppermint 

Aqua Menthae Viridis — Spearmint 

Distillation 

Aqua Aurantii Florum Fortior — Stronger orange flower 

water 
Aqua Destillata — Distilled water 
Aqua Destillata Sterilisata — Sterile distilled water 
Aqua Hamamelidis — Witch-hazel 
Aqua Rosse Fortior — Stronger rose water 

Gaseous solution 

Aqua Ammonias — Ammonia water 

Aqua Ammonise Fortior — Stronger ammonia water 

The process of simple dilution or solution consists of adding the 
drug to a sufficient amount of water and agitating. In case of a 
gaseous solution, the gas must first be generated in a suitable appa- 
ratus, washed and passed into a cylinder containing water. 

Filtration Through an Absorbent Powder. Excepting in the 
case of camphor water, this process is employed to obtain a saturated 
solution of volatile oil. Since these oils are but slightly soluble in 
water, they are triturated with an insoluble absorbent powder to 
separate them into finely divided form. After trituration with the 
powder, the water is gradually added. The result is that the finely 
divided drug is better brought into solution. Several powders have 
been recommended for use but all were more or less soluble and the 
Pharmacopoeia specifies purified talcum. This is the method speci- 
fied in the general formula for aromatic waters. 

Distillation. In this case the product is put into a still with 
water and heat applied. The vapors arising from the still carry 
with them the volatile aromatic principles of the plant. 



24 PHARMACY 

Waters are usually employed as pleasant vehicles for solution of 
various salts. 

LIQUORES — LIQUORS — SOLUTIONS 

Liquors are aqueous solutions of non-volatile substances. There 
are 25 official solutions in the Pharmacopoeia. They may be divided 
into two classes according to the method of preparation. That is 
(1) Simple solution (Liquor Acidi Arsenosi) and (2) solution 
through chemical change (Liquor Ammonii Acetatis). The following 
table of official liquors indicates their method of preparation : 

Simple Solution. 

1. Liquor Acidi Arsenosi — Solution of Arsenous Acid. 

2. Liquor Arseni et Llydrargyri Iodidi — Solution of Arsenous 

and Mercuric Iodides. 

3. Liquor Formaldehydi — Solution of Formaldehyde. 

4. Liquor Hypophysis — Solution of the Pituitary Body. 

5. Liquor Iodi Compositus — Comp. Sol. of Iodine, Lugol's 

Solution. 

6. Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus. — Dil. Sol. of Lead Sub- 

acetate. 

7. Liquor Potassii Hydroxidi — Solution of Potassium Llydrox- 

ide. 

8. Liquor Sodii Arsenatis — Solution of Sodium Arsenate. 

9. Liquor Sodii Chloridi Physiologicus — Physiological Salt 

Solution. 

10. Liquor Sodii Glycerophosphatis — Sol. of Glycerophos- 

phates. 

11. Liquor Sodii Hydroxidi — Sol. of Sodium Hydroxide. 

Chemical Action. 

1. Liquor Ammonii Acetatis — Sol. of Ammonium Acetate. 

2. Liquor Calcis — Lime water. 

3. Liquor Cresolis Compositus — Compound Solution of Cresol. 

4. Liquor Ferri Chloridi — Sol. of Iron Chloride. 

5. Liquor Perri et Ammonii Acetatis — Sol. of Iron and Am- 

nion. Acet. 

6. Liquor Perri Subsulphatis — Sol. of Ferric Subsulphate. 

7. Liquor Ferri Tersulphatis — Sol. of Ferric Sulphate. 

8. Liquor Hydrogenii Dioxidi — Sol. of Peroxide of Hydrogen. 

9. Liquor Magnesii Citratis — Sol. of Magnesium Citrate. 

10. Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis — Sol. of Lead Subacetate. 

11. Liquor Potassii Arsenitis — Sol. of Potassium Arsenite. 

12. Liquor Potassii Citratis — Sol. of Potassium Citrate. 

13. Liquor Sodii Chlorinatse — Sol. of Chlorinated Soda. 

14. Liquor Zinci Chloridi — Sol. of Zinc Chloride. 



MUCILAGES — SYRUPS 25 



MUCILAGINES — MUCILAGES 

Mucilages are aqueous adhesive liquors or jelly-like preparations 
containing a viscid substance (gum or starch) either in solution or 
suspension. All mucilages are prone to decomposition and on this 
account should be freshly prepared for internal use. The following 
are official : 

Mucilago Acacias Mucilage of Acacia. 

Mucilago Tragacanthse Mucilage of Tragacanth. 

SYRUPI — SYRUPS 

Syrups are concentrated solutions of sugar in water usually medi- 
cated or flavored. A concentrated aqueous solution of sugar in water 
is called "syrup" or "simple syrup." If the substance added to 
to the simple syrup is a pleasant fruit or aromatic, the product is 
termed a " flavored syrup" while if the material added is of a medi- 
cinal nature, the product is a "medicated syrup." There are 22 
official syrups. Many of these are of but little importance so a list 
will not be given. According to the method used in manufacture, 
syrups may be classified as follows: 1. Solution with heat, e.g., 
Syrupus Calcis. 2. Agitation of sugar with medicated liquids or 
simple admixtures without heat, e.g., Syrupus Pruni Virginianse. 
3. Simple addition of medicated liquids to syrup, e.g., Syrupus 
Zingiberis. 4. Maceration or digestion, e.g., Syrupus Picis Liquidse. 

MELLITA — HONEYS 

Honeys are thick liquid preparations containing medical agents 
blended with honey. In the early days of medicine they represented 
the most popular class of medical preparations, but have now been 
almost entirely replaced by the elixirs and syrups. The U. S. P. 
recognizes 3 official honeys. 

Mel Honey 

Mel Depuratum Clarified Honey 

Mel Rosse Honey of Eose 

EMULSA — EMULSIONS 

Emulsions are aqueous preparations for internal use, in which 
resinous or fatty substances are suspended by means of mucilage or 
other viscid material. Acacia, Tragacanth and Yolk of Egg are 
often used for this purpose (Emulsifiers). In some instances, as in 
the case of emulsions of gum resins, the gum needed to form the 
emulsion is found present with the resin. The seeds of some plants 



26 PHARMACY 

also contain an albuminous substance, which, serves as an emulsifier 
for the oil also present in the seed, rendering the addition of gums 
unnecessary. The emulsions are all quite unstable and accordingly 
should be freshly prepared for use. 

In making emulsions of fixed oils, in which case Emulsion of 
Cod Liver Oil serves as the best example, either of two processes 
may be employed : the English and the Continental. The latter is 
usually the more satisfactory. With this method a nucleus or pri- 
mary emulsion is prepared first with certain proportions of the ingre- 
dients, and this can be further diluted with water or flavor without 
fear of splitting (Separation). The proportion by weight is: oil 4, 
water 2, and gum 1, or in other words, use twice as much oil as water, 
and twice as much water as gum. The nucleus is then diluted with 
water or flavor to the desired amount. 

The following are official : 

Emulsum Amygdala? 
Emulsum Asafcetida? 
Emulsum Olei Morrhua? 
Emulsum Olei Terebinthina? 

MISTURAE — MIXTURES 

Mixtures are aqueous preparations for internal use containing in 
suspension insoluble, non-fatty substances. They are not permanent 
as a rule and should be freshly prepared. They should be dispensed 
with a shake label. Two are official, Mistura Cretan and Mistura 
Glycyrrhiza? Composita. 

MAGMAE 

Magma? are aqueous preparations containing thick, tenacious pre- 
cipitates. Two are official: Magma Bismuthi and Magma Mag- 
nesia?. 

SPIRITUS — SPIRITS 

Spirits are alcoholic solutions of volatile substances. As in case 
of waters, the volatile substances may be solid or liquid. Spirits 
containing some aromatic flavoring principles are frequently called 
"essences." They may be prepared in the following ways: 1. 
Dilution or solution. 2. Solution by maceration. 3. Solution by 
chemical action. Fifteen are official. 

The following table of fifteen official spirits indicates the method 
by which prepared: 

Simple Solution 

Spiritus Ammonia? Aromaticus Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia 
Spiritus Amygdali Amara? Spirit of Bitter Almond 



ELIXIRS — GLYCERITES 



27 



Spiritus Anisi 

Spiritus JKtheris 

Spiritus Aurantii Compositus 

Spiritus Camphorse 

Spiritus Chloroformi 

Spiritus Cinnamomi 

Spiritus Glycerylis Nitratis 

Spiritus Juuiperi 

Spiritus Juniperi Compositus 

Spiritus Lavandula; 



Spirit of Anise 

Spirit of Ether 

Compound Spirit of Orange 

Spirit of Camphor 

Spirit of Chloroform 

Spirit of Cinnamon 

Spirit of Nitroglycerin 

Spirit of Juniper 

Compound Spirits of Juniper 

Spirit of Lavender 



Solution by Maceration 

Spiritus Menthse Piperita? Spirit of Peppermint 
Spiritus Menthse Virdis Spirit of Spearmint 

Chemical Action 



Spiritus iEtheris ISTitrosi 



Sweet Spirits of Niter 
Spirit of Nitrous Ether 



ELIXIRIA — ELIXIRS 

Elixirs are hydro-alcoholic solutions of an aromatic substance 
and sugar. They contain from 20 to 25 per cent, of alcohol. The 
following are official : 



Elixir Aromaticum 
Elixir Glycyrrhiza? 



Aromatic Elixir 

Elixir Glycyrrhiza (Licorice) 



GLYCERITA — GLYCERITES 

These are solutions or mixtures of drugs in glycerin. Most of 
them are solutions, but one, Glyceritum Amyli, is a semi-solid mass. 
They are nice preparations, and are usually employed externally. 
The following five are official : 



Glyceritum Acidi Tannici 
Glyceritum Amyli 
Glyceritum Boroglycerini 
Glyceritum Hydrastis 
Glyceritum Phenolis 



Glycerite of Tannic Acid 

Glycerite of Starch 
Glycerite of Boroglycerin 
Glycerite of Hydrastis 
Glvcerite of Phenol 



COLLODIA — COLLODIONS 

These are preparations for external use. Simple collodion is a 
solution of Pyroxylin in Ether and Alcohol. The others have simple 
collodion as their base. When applied, the solvent evaporates very 
rapidly, leaving a film of Gun Cotton which is a good protective. 
Three are official : 



28 PHARMACY 

Collodium Collodion 

Collodiurn Cantharidatum Cantharidal Collodion 

Collodium Flexile Flexible Collodion 

OLEATA — OLEATES 

These were formerly denned as solutions of oxides or alkaloids 
in oleic acid but in the revision of the Pharmacopoeia of 1910 but one 
is official, " Oleatum Hydrargyri " — so that oleate would be defined 
as a solution of an oxide in oleic acid. Oleates are applied by inunc- 
tion and depend upon absorption from the skin for their physiological 
action. As stated above they are prepared by dissolving an oxide or 
an alkaloid in oleic acid. An excess of heat should be avoided in 
making metallic oleates, as the acid easily reduces the metals, espe- 
cially when heated. 

INFUS A — INFUSIONS 

These are preparations of vegetable drugs made by maceration or 
percolation. In the one official infusion, Infusum Digitalis, and the 
general formula for making infusions, the water is poured on while 
boiling hot. Cold water should be used for those drugs whose active 
principle would be driven off or its formation prevented by boiling 
water. 

DECOCTA — DECOCTIONS 

Decoctions are liquids made by boiling the drug in closed vessels 
for fifteen minutes. They are then allowed to cool, strained and 
water added to make up the required amount. There are no official 
decoctions but the Pharmacopoeia includes a general formula for their 
preparation. Decoctions and infusions do not keep well and should 
be freshly prepared for use. 

TINCTURE — TINCTURES 

Tinctures are alcoholic solutions of non-volatile substances ob- 
tained by the extraction of drugs. Tincture of iodine is an exception 
to the rule of non-volatile substances, while both tincture of iodine and 
tincture of the chloride of iron are made by solution. They differ 
from spirits in that, with the exception of tincture of iodine, the sub- 
stances from which they are prepared are non-volatile. They differ 
from fluidextracts in respect to strength. They are weaker than 
nuidextracts and not uniform in strength, except that the potent tinc- 
tures are ten per cent, strength of the drug. Tinctures may be pre- 
pared by maceration, percolation, and solution or dilution. 

The Pharmacopoeia states that unless otherwise directed in the 
text, tinctures shall be made by one of two processes — Type P, Per- 
colation, and Type M, Maceration. 



TINCTURES 29 



TYPE PROCESSES FOR TINCTURES 

Type Process P — Percolation. Moisten the powdered drug 
or mixed drugs as designated in the formula with a sufficient quantity 
of the prescribed menstruum to render it evenly and distinctly damp, 
transfer it to a percolator, and, without pressing the powder, allow it 
to stand well covered for six hours, then pack it firmly, unless other- 
wise directed, and pour on enough of the menstruum to saturate the 
powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to drop 
from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely covered 
the percolator, macerate for twenty-four hours. Then allow the per* 
eolation to proceed slowly, gradually adding sufficient of the men- 
struum to make one thousand mils of the finished tincture. 

Type Process M — Maceration. Macerate the drug or mixed 
drugs designated in the formula in a stoppered container, in a mod- 
erately warm place, with seven hundred and fifty mils of the pre- 
scribed solvent (unless a different amount is specified in the formula). 
Continue the maceration with frequent agitation during three days or 
until the drug is practically extracted, transfer the mixture to a filter 
and, when the liquid has drained off completely, gradually wash the 
residue on the filter with enough of the solvent to make one thousand 
mils of finished tincture. 

There are 54 official tinctures. The following table gives a list of 
official tinctures together with method of preparation and men- 
struum employed : 

By Solution or Dilution 

PREPARATION SOLVENT 

Tinctura Ferri Chloridi Alcohol 650 mils 

Sol. of Ferric Chloride 350 mils 
Tinctura Iodi Alcohol 950, Water 50 

Maceration Type M 

MENSTRUUM PREPARATION 

Alcohol, U. S. P. Tinctura Asafoetidse 

Tinctura Aurantii Dulcis 

Tinctura Benzoini 

Tinctura Benzoini Composita 

Tinctura Guaiaci 

Tinctura Myrrhse 

Tinctura Limonis Corticis 

Tinctura Tolutana 

Tinctura Lavandula? Composita 

Alcohol 750 mils, Water 250 mils Tinctura Scillae 



30 



PHARMACY 



MENSTRUUM 

Diluted Alcohol 



Boiling water 500 
Alcohol 500 mils 
Glycerin 50 mils 
Diluted Alcohol 950 mils 
Glycerin 40 mils, Diluted 
Alcohol 950 mils 
Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia 
Of the above, squill is made 



PREPARATION 

Tinctura Aloes 

Tinctura Gambir Composita 

Tinctura Moschi 

Tinctura Kino 

Tinctura Cardamomi Composita 

Tinctura Opii Camphorata 

Tinctura Guaiaci Ammoniata 
by maceration and expression. 



Made by Percolation Type P 



MENSTRUUM 



Alcohol, U. S. P. 



Alcohol 950 mils, Water 50 mils 
Alcohol 750 mils, Water 250 mils 



Alcohol 700 mils, Water 300 mils 
Alcohol 650 mils, Water 350 mils 
Alcohol 666 mils, Water 333 mils 
Alcohol 600 mils, Water 400 mils 



Glycerin 100 mils, Alcohol 
500 mils, Water 400 mils 
Diluted Alcohol 



Alcohol 333 mils, Water 666 mils 
Alcohol 200 mils, Water 800 mils 
Glycerin 75 mils, Alcohol 
675 mils, Water 250 mils 



PREPARATION 

Tinctura Cannabis 
Tinctura Cantharidis 
Tinctura Physostigmatis 
Tinctura Pyrethri 
Tinctura Strophanthi 
Tinctura Veratri Viridis 
Tinctura Zingiberis 
Tinctura Capsici 
Tinctura Kucis Vomicae 
Tinctura Valerianae 
Tinctura Digitalis 
Tinctura Aconiti 
Tinctura Gelsemii 
Tinctura Hydrastis 
Tinctura Aurantii Amari 
Tinctura Calumba? 
Tinctura Colchici Seminis 
Tinctura Gentiana? Composita 

Tinctura Arnicas 

Tinctura Belladonna? Foliorum 

Tinctura Cardamomi 

Tinctura Hyoscyami 

Tinctura Lobelise 

Tinctura Opii 

Tinctura Stramonii 

Tinctura Quassias 

Tinctura Opii Deodorata 

Tinctura Cinchonas 

Tinctura Cinchona? Composita 

Tinctura Cinnamomi 



FLUIDEXTRACTS 31 

MENSTKUUM PREPARATION 

Glycerin 250 mils, Alcohol Tinctura Lactucarii 
500 mils, Water 250 mils 

Glycerine 100 mils, Alcohol Tinctura Ehei 
500 mils, Water 400 mils Tinctura Ehei Aromatica 
Hydrochloric acid 10 mils, Al- 
cohol 600 mils, Water 400 mils Tinctura Sangumanse 
Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia Tinctura Valeriana Ammoniata 

FLUIDEXTRACTA — FLUIDEXTRACTS 

Fluidextracts are concentrated liquid preparations of vegetable 
drugs, containing alcohol either as a solvent or preservative and 
bearing a uniform relation to the drug used so that one mil of the 
fluidextract closely represents the activity of one gram of the air 
dried powdered drug of standard quality. They possess the follow- 
ing advantages over tinctures: 1. They have a definite strength, 
representing 100 per cent, of the activity of the crude drug, conse- 
quently the close is the same as for the crude drug and need not be es- 
pecially remembered. 2. They are so concentrated that less is re- 
quired for action, and 3. They keep better than tinctures and some 
improve with age. 

With few exceptions, the fluidextracts of the Pharmacopoeia may 
be classified according to the menstrua used in the extraction of the 
drugs and the process of manufacture employed, but there are several 
drugs which require special manipulation to make satisfactory prep- 
arations and for them definite formulas have been devised and are 
printed in full in the text. The formulas for the other fluidextracts 
correspond to one of the following types : 

Type Process A. In this class are included those fluidextracts 
that are made with a menstruum of alcohol or a mixture of alcohol 
and water by the usual process of percolation. 

Type Process B. In this group are included those fluidextracts 
in which glycerin or an acid is used in the extraction and two men- 
strua are successively employed. The first menstruum contains the 
acid or glycerin in definite proportion to the amount of drug while 
the second consists of a mixture of alcohol and water intended for 
completing the exhaustion of the drug. 

Type Process C. This is the process of fractional or divided 
percolation (repercolation). It is especially recommended for drugs 
containing volatile ingredients, or constituents injured by heat, but 
may be used as an alternative process in the formulas in which Type 
Process A is directed. 

Type Process D. In this class are included those fluidextracts 
in which extraction is effected by infusion and percolation with boil- 
ing water, alcohol being added to the concentrated liquid as a pre- 
servative. 



32 PHARMACY 

In the preparation of fluidextracts by either process A, B, or C 
the rate of percolation must be perfectly controlled and, for the 
quantities directed in the formulas of the Pharmacopoeia (1000.0 
Gms.) the rate of flow should not exceed ten drops per minute, until 
the reserve percolate is collected and twenty drops per minute there- 
after. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE DIFFERENT TYPE PROCESSES 

Type Process A. Moisten required amount of the powdered 
drug with a sufficient amount of the prescribed menstruum to render 
it evenly and distinctly damp and to maintain it so, after macerating 
for six hours in a tightly covered container. Then pack it in a 
cylindrical percolator and add enough of the menstruum to saturate 
the powder and leave a stratum above it. When the liquid begins to 
drop from the percolator, close the lower orifice, and, having closely 
covered the percolator, macerate for forty-eight hours. Then allow 
the percolation to proceed slowly, gradually adding more menstruum 
until the drug is exhausted. Reserve the first eight hundred and 
fifty mils of the percolate (unless otherwise specified in the for- 
mula) ; recover the alcohol from the remainder and concentrate the 
residue to a soft extract at a temperature not exceeding 60° C. ; dis- 
solve this in the reserved portion, mix thoroughly, and finally add a 
sufficient quantity of the menstruum to obtain one thousand mils or 
the volume determined by calculation or directions. 

Type Process B. Moisten one thousand grams of the pow- 
dered drug directed with a sufficient quantity of the prescribed Men- 
struum I to render it evenly and distinctly damp and to maintain it 
so after maceration for six hours in a tightly covered container. 
Then pack it in a cylindrical percolator, add the remainder of Men- 
struum I, and when this has just disappeared from the surface, 
gradually add Menstruum II, constantly maintaining a stratum of 
liquid above the drug. 

When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the 
lower orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate 
for forty-eight hours, and then allow the percolation to proceed 
slowly, gradually adding Menstruum II until the drug is exhausted. 
Reserve the first eight hundred and fifty mils of the percolate (unless 
otherwise directed in the formula) ; recover the alcohol from the 
remainder and concentrate the residue to a soft extract at a tem- 
perature not exceeding 60° C. ; dissolve this in the reserved portion, 
mix thoroughly, and finally add a sufficient quantity of Menstruum 
II to obtain one thousand mils, or the volume determined by calcu- 
lation from assay. 

Type Process C. Divide one thousand grams of the powdered 
drug directed into three portions of five hundred grams, three hun- 



FLUIDEXTRACTS 33 

dred grams, and two hundred grams, respectively. Moisten the first 
portion of the drug (500 Gms.) with a sufficient quantity of the 
prescribed menstruum to render it evenly and distinctly damp and 
to maintain it so after maceration for six hours in a tightly-covered 
container. Then pack it in a cylindrical percolator and add enough 
menstruum to saturate the powder and leave a stratum above it. 
When the liquid begins to drop from the percolator, close the lower 
orifice, and, having closely covered the percolator, macerate for forty- 
eight hours and then allow the percolation to proceed slowly, grad- 
ually adding more menstruum. Reserve the first two hundred mils 
of the percolate and continue the process until the additional perco- 
late measures fifteen hundred mils, the latter being collected in suc- 
cessive portions of three hundred mils each. 

Moisten the second portion of the powdered drug (300 Gms.) 
with a sufficient quantity of the percolate collected in the preceding 
operation immediately after the reserved portion to render it evenly 
and distinctly damp and to maintain it so after macerating for six 
hours in a tightly-covered container. Then pack it in a cylindrical 
percolator and macerate and percolate as directed for the first part 
of the drug, using as menstruum the several portions of percolate 
from the preceding operation in the order in which they have been 
collected, and if this be insufficient, follow with some of the original 
menstruum. Reserve the first three hundred mils of percolate and 
continue the process until the additional percolate measures eight 
hundred mils, collecting the weaker percolate in successive portions 
of two hundred mils each. 

Moisten the third portion of the powdered drug (200 Gms.) with 
a sufficient quantity of the percolate collected in the preceding oper- 
ation immediately after the reserve portion to render it evenly and 
distinctly damp and to maintain it so after macerating for six hours 
in a tightly-covered container. Then pack it in a cylindrical per- 
colator and macerate and percolate as before, using as menstruum 
the several portions of the percolate from the preceding operation in 
the order in which they have been collected, and, if this be insuffi- 
cient, follow with more of the original menstruum. Collect five hun- 
dred mils of percolate and mix this with the two portions previously 
reserved so as to make one thousand mils of finished fluidextract. 

When Type Process C is directed for fluidextracts which are 
adjusted by assay to a definite alkaloidal standard, collect only four 
hundred and twenty mils of percolate from the third portion of the 
drug instead of the five hundred mils as directed above. Mix this 
percolate with the two portions previously reserved, assay a portion 
of the mixture and then adjust its volume, by the addition of the 
menstruum directed, so that each one hundred mils of finished fluid- 
extract will contain the prescribed amount of alkaloid. 

Type Process D. To one thousand grams of the ground drug 



34 PHARMACY 

add five thousand mils of boiling water, mix thoroughly and allow 
it to macerate in a covered container for two hours in a warm place. 
Then transfer the moist drug to a tinned or enameled metallic per- 
colator and allow percolation to proceed, gradually adding boiling 
water until the drug is exhausted. Evaporate the percolate on a 
water bath or steam bath to the volume specified, and when cold ..add 
the alcohol directed and mix thoroughly. 

VINI — WINES 

Wines are liquid preparations containing the soluble principles 
of medicinal substances, dissolved in wine. They may be prepared 
by solution or maceration, and differ from tinctures only in the sol- 
vent employed, i.e., wine instead of alcohol in various strengths. 
Ten were official in the Pharmacopoeia of 1900 but they were all 
dropped from the last revision. 

OLEORESINAE — OLEORESINS 

The pharmaceutic oleoresins are liquid preparations consisting 
principally of volatile oils and resins, obtained by the extraction 
from vegetable drugs by percolation with ether or alcohol and subse- 
quent distillation or evaporation of the solvent from the dissolved 
portions. There are two groups of oleoresins, the natural and the 
pharmaceutic. The former are mixtures of volatile oils and resins 
which exude from plants. ( Turpentine, Copaiba ) . They are quite 
different from the pharmaceutic class described above. Oleoresins 
are the most concentrated of all liquid preparations of drugs. Their 
strength varies, however, but usually runs from 5 to 10 times the 
strength of the crude drug. 

Preparation. With slight differences they are prepared in a 
manner similar to fluidextracts. They are placed in a percolator 
without moistening, the menstruum is usually different, and a special 
percolator for volatile liquids should be used for the best results. 
The following 6 are official : 

r 01eoresina Aspidii Oleoresin of Aspidium 

Oleoresina Capsici Oleoresin of Capsicum 

Oleoresina Petroselini Oleoresin of Parsley Fruit 

Oleoresina Piperis Oleoresin of Pepper 

Oleoresina Zingiberis Oleoresin of Ginger 

Oleoresina Cubebse Oleoresin of Cubebs 

ACETA — VINEGARS 



Solvent 
Ether 

Solvent 
Alcohol 



These are liquid preparations of the active principles of drugs, 
prepared by extraction with Diluted Acetic Acid. They resemble 



EXTRACTS 35 

tinctures except for the solvent used. Acetic Acid is a good sol- 
vent for many of the active ingredients of plants and serves as a 
preservative. It also produces soluble salts with the alkaloidal prin- 
ciples of plants. But one is official: 

Acetuni Scillae, Vinegar of Squill 

This is prepared with Diluted Acetic Acid ( 6 per cent, by weight 
of absolute Acetic Acid), and is made by maceration. It represents 
10 per cent, of the active drug. 

EXTRACTA — EXTRACTS 

Extracts are solid or semi-solid preparations of the active con- 
stituents of drugs prepared by percolation of the crude drug with 
the proper menstruum and evaporation of the percolate. The men- 
struum may be water, alcohol, or various proportions of water and 
alcohol, or ammonia, and extracts made from such a percolate are 
termed respectively, aqueous, alcoholic, hydro-alcoholic, or ammon- 
ia-ted extracts. Besides the above the juices of fresh plants, extracted 
by contusion and expression, are often evaporated and known as 
" inspissated juices." These are popular in England but none are 
official in this country. There are 25 official extracts. As a rule the 
extracts are not so satisfactory as the fluidextracts or tinctures 
because they vary in strength, the dose is exceedingly small and the 
soft ones are difficult to manipulate. 

Table of Extracts 

Extractum Aconiti Powdered 
Extractum Belladonnas Foliorium Powdered and Pilular 

Extractum Cannabis Pilular 

Extractum Cascarse Powdered 

Extractum Cimicifugse Powdered 

Extractum Colchici Cormi Powdered 

Extractum Colocynthidis Powdered 
Extractum Colocynthidis Com- Powdered 

positum 

Extractum Ergota? Pilular 

Extractum Fellis Bovis Powdered 

Extractum Gelsemii Powdered 

Extractum Gentianse Pilular 

Extractum Glycyrrhiza? Brittle 
Extractum Glycyrrhizse Purum Pilular 

Extractum Hydrastis Powdered 

Extractum Hyoscyami Pilular 

Extractum Malti Thin Liquid 

Extractum Nucis Vomicae Powdered 

Extractum Opii Powdered 



36 PHARMACY 

Extractum Physostigmatis Powdered 

Extractum Ehei Powdered 

Extractum Stramonii Powdered and Pilular 

Extractum Sumbul Pilular 

Extractum Taraxaci Pilular 

Extractum Viburni Prunifolii Powdered 

RESINAE — RESINS 

Eesins are chemically solid plant substances or exudations usually 
acid in character, insoluble in water but soluble in water and an 
alkali. However, the pharmaceutic class — resins — are those plant 
substances insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, obtained either as a 
residue left after the distillation of an oleoresin or by precipitating 
them by pouring a concentrated alcoholic extract of the drug into 
water or acidulated water. All official resins except rosin are ob- 
tained in this way. Eour are official : 

Kesina Rosin 

Eesina Jalapse Eesin of Jalap 

Eesina Podophylli Eesin of Podopyllum 

Eesina Scammonia? Eesin of Scammony 

LINIMENTA — LINIMENTS 

Liniments are liquid preparations for external use to be applied 
by friction. They are usually solutions or mixtures of oily or alco- 
holic substances containing fatty oils. Some official liniments are 
solid or semisolid preparations. Eight liniments are official. Three 
have a fixed oil as a base, three alcohol, one turpentine, and one a 
fluidextract. The following table indicates the base in each : 

Alcoholic — 
Basis Alcohol Linirnentum Saponis, Soap Lini- 

ment 
Basis Alcohol Linirnentum Saponis, Mollis 

Basis Soap Liniment Linirnentum Chloroformi 

Basis Fluidextract Linirnentum Belladonna? 

Oleaginous — 

Basis Cotton Seed Oil Linirnentum Camphorse 

Basis Linseed Oil Linirnentum Calcis 

Basis Sesame Oil Linirnentum Ammonise 

Basis Turpentine Oil Linimenttim Terebinthinse 

PUL VERES — POWDERS 

These are preparations of, or combinations of, solid drugs in a 
fine state of division, for external or internal use. See p. 17. 
The pulverization is done to facilitate solution of the ingredients. 
Seven are official : 



TRITURATIONS — PILLS 37 

Pulvis Aromaticus Aromatic powder 

Pulvis Cretan Compositus Compound chalk powder 

Pulvis Effervescens Compositus Compound effervescing powder 

Pulvis GlycyrrhizEe Compositus Compound licorice powder 

Pulvis Ipecacuanha? et Opii Dover's powder 

Pulvis Jalapse Compositus Compound powder of jalap 

Pulvis Ehei Compositus Compound powder of rhubarb 

TRITURATIONES — TRITURATIONS 

These preparations were suggested by similar preparations used 
in homeopathy. The general formula for triturations as directed by 
the Pharmacopoeia is 

Substance 10.00 Gm. 

Sugar of Milk 90.0 Gm. 

Weigh the substance and the sugar of milk separately ; then place 
the substance, previously reduced if necessary, to a moderately fine 
powder, in a mortar ; add about an equal measure of sugar of milk, 
mix well by means of a spatula and triturate the powders thoroughly 
together. Then add fresh portions of sugar of milk from time to 
time, until the whole is added, and continue the trituration after each 
addition until the substance is intimately mixed with the sugar of 
milk and reduced to a fine powder. 

MASBJK — MASSES 

These are combinations of medical substances, incorporated with 
enough liquid to make a consistency for pills. Two are official, 

Massa Ferri Carbonatis Vallet's Mass 

Massa Hydrargyri Blue Mass 

OONFECTIONES — CONFECTIONS 

Confections are soft, solid saccharine preparations in which the 
medicinal agent is combined with saccharine substances, as jellies, 
pulp of fruit or honey. They are also called conserves or electuaries. 

PILULE — PILLS 

Pills are small globules, spherical or lenticular in shape, contain- 
ing one dose of medicinal substance and intended to be swallowed 
whole. Since they are so easily made by machinery, but few are 
now made by hand. There are three steps in the manufacture of 
pills. 

1. Making the mass, 

2. Dividing the mass, 

3. Polling the pills. 



38 



PHARMACY 



After they are rolled, they may be coated with gelatin, sugar, 
chocolate, keratin, etc. 
Seven are official : 



Pilulse Aloes 

Pilulse Asafoetidte 

Pilulse Cathartics Composite 

Pilulse Ferri Carbonatis 

Pihila? Ferri Iodidi 

Pilulse Phosphori 

Pilule Ehei Compositse 



Aloes Pills 
Asafcetida Pills 
Compound Cathartic Pills 
Blaud's Pills 
Iodide of Iron Pills 
Phosphorus Pills 
Compound Rhubarb Pills 



TROCHISCI — TROCHES 

These are disc-like masses of medicinal substances, consisting 
chiefly of medical powders, sugar and mucilage, intended to be 
slowly dissolved in the mouth. Powerful or disagreeable drugs 
should not be given in this manner, and it is needless to say that they 
cannot be used in veterinary medicine. They may be manufactured 
by massing or compression. In the former case the medicine is 
combined with some mucilaginous substance with sufficient water to 
make a mass, and then worked in a mortar to a mass. This is rolled 
out and then cut with a lozenge cutter. 

By Compression. The manufacture of troches by compression 
differs from that of tablets only by the size of the mold. Five are 
official : 



Trochisci Acidi Tannici 
Trochisci Ammonii Chloridi 
Trochisci Cubebse 
Trochisci Potassii Chloratis 
Trochisci Sodii Bicarbonatis 



Troches of Tannic Acid 
Troches of Ammonium Chloride 
Troches of Cubebs 
Troches of Potassium Chlorate 
Troches of Sodium Bicarbonate 



UNGUENTA — OINTMENTS 

Ointments are semisolid preparations in which the medical sub- 
stances are blended with fatty substances, lard, petrolatum, etc., and 
soft enough to be applied to the skin by inunction. They are 
always softer than cerates, which see. They may be prepared by 
incorporation or fusion. When made by the former method, the 
medical substance is rubbed with the solid fatty matter in a mortar 
or upon an ointment slab with a spatula. When made by fusion the 
fatty base is liquefied by gentle heat and the medicine incorporated 
while liquid or after solidification. Twenty are official. 



TJnguentum, a base for other oint- 
ments 
TTngnentum Acidi Borici 
Unguentum Acidi Tannici 



Unguentum Aquae Rosse 
TTngnentum Belladonna? 
TTnguentum Chrysarobini (Chrysa- 
robin) 



CERATES — SUPPOSITORIES 39 

Unguentum Diachylon Unguentum Iodi 

Unguentum Gallse (Nutgalls) Unguentum Iodoformi 

Unguentum Hydrargyri Unguentum Phenolis 

Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammoniati Unguentum Picis Liquidse 

Unguentum Hydrargyri Dilutum Unguentum Stramonii 

(Blue ointment) Unguentum Sulphuris 

Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis Unguentum Zinci Oxidi 
Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi 

Flavi 

CERATA — CERATES 

These are preparations of medicinal substances with fats and 
waxes of such a consistency as to be soft enough to spread upon muslin 
or other material and not soft enough to liquefy when applied to the 
skin. They are called Cerates because they contain wax or cera. 
They may be prepared by fusion or incorporation but all the official 
ones are directed to be made by the former method. Three are 
official : 

Ceratum Cerate. Used only as a base 

Ceratum Resina? Resin or Rosin Cerate 

Ceratum Cantharidis Cantharides Cerate 

SUPPOSITORIA — SUPPOSITORIES 

Suppositories are solid bodies of various shapes and weights, 
adapted for the introduction into various orifices of the body, and 
melting or softening at body temperature. The vehicles usually 
employed are oil of theobroma, glycerinated gelatin and sodium 
stearate. The ideal suppository consists of a medicine blended with 
some inert base which will not liquefy at ordinary temperatures but 
will melt at the body temperature. They may be prepared by three 
processes, rolling, molding and compression. The first method con- 
sists of making a mass, rolling it into a cylinder, cutting the cylin- 
der and shaping with the hands. In case of those made by molds, 
the mass is liquefied and poured into thoroughly chilled molds. By 
compression the medical substance is mixed with finely grated oil 
of theobroma and compressed with a lever. 

There is one official suppository — Suppositoria Glycerini, be- 
sides which the Pharmacopoeia contains general formulas for those 
made with oil of theobroma and glycerinated gelatin. 

CATAPLASMA — CATAPLASMS — POULTICES 

These are wet masses of solid matter applied to the skin for the 
purpose of reducing inflammation, or in other cases to act as counter- 
irritants. The solid matter as the base is chosen with a view to its 
capacity for absorbing water. Thus the base of the one former offi- 



40 PHARMACY 

cial cataplasma is clay, while mucilaginous drugs, such as flaxseed, 
are valuable for poultice bases. 

If the poultice is intended to reduce inflammation, the proper 
base is one devoid of medical action, and the poultice wet with cold 
water or liquid acts similarly to a cold compress. If intended to 
act as a counterirritant, the poultice is either applied hot or is made 
of some drug which has rubifacient properties. (Mustard poultice.) 
Cataplasma Kaolini belongs to the class of mechanical non-medici- 
nal poultices used for allaying inflammation. It was official in 
the Pharmacopoeia of 1905. 

EMPLASTRA — PLASTERS 

Plasters are solid preparations containing medicinal substances 
intended to be applied to the skin, and of sufficient adhesiveness to 
adhere firmly. They differ from cerates in being free from fats 
and also from the fact that cerates, when spread on cloth and ap- 
plied are not of sufficient adhesiveness to stick firmly to the skin. 
The bases of plasters consist of gum resins, lead plaster, resin 
plaster, burgundy pitch, isinglass, and India rubber. In former 
times the first named bases were often used, but the machine made 
plasters with a rubber base have largely replaced them. 

The following are official : 

Emplastrum Belladonnae Belladonna Plaster 

Emplastrum Cantharidis Cantharides Plaster 

Emplastrum Capsici Capsicum Plaster 

Emplastrum Elasticum Eubber Plaster 

Emplastrum Plumbi Lead Plaster 

Emplastrum Kesinse Eesin or Eosin Plaster 

Emplastrum Sinipis Mustard Plaster 

CHARTAE — PAPERS. 

These are a class of preparations in which the medicine is 
spread upon paper or absorbed by it. There are no official papers. 
Charta-Sinipis, Mustard Paper, was official in U. S. P. of 1900 and 
Charta Potassii Nitratis in U. S. P. of 1890. 

UNOFFICIAL PREPARATIONS 

Many unofficial preparations are in so common use that it seems 
best to include a few of them. The most common are : Tabella> — 
Tablets (tablet triturates, compressed tablets, hypodermic tablets) ; 
Boli — Bolus, Ball (capsules, haustus, electuary). 

TABELLAE — TABLETS 

Tablets are small disc-shaped bodies containing medicinal 
agents. With the exception of Toxitabellce Hydrargyri Chloridi 



TABLETS — BALLS 41 

Corrosivi they are unofficial but nevertheless largely employed. 
There are several varieties: tablet triturates, compressed tablets, 
coated tablets, hypodermic tablets and dispensing tablets. 

Tablet triturates are prepared by triturating the medicament 
with finely powdered sugar of milk if powerful agents are used, or 
if the substance requires no dilution, triturating it to a very fine 
powder, moistening the powder with sufficient alcohol or other vola- 
tile substance to make a paste. The moistened powder is then 
pressed into molds consisting of a plate perforated with holes and 
then the tablets are pressed out by fitting this perforated plate over 
another plate upon which are situated pegs that accurately fit the 
perforations. The liquid is evaporated very quickly, after which 
the tablets retain their shape and are ready for use. They possess 
advantages over any other method of administering solids in human 
and small animal practice as they are more conveniently adminis- 
tered than powders and are more soluble than pills, compressed 
tablets or capsules. Well made triturates disintegrate almost imme- 
diately on being placed in water. 

Hypodermic tablets are made by the same process. The selec- 
tion of the diluent is an important question because rapid solu- 
bility is desired. Dried neutral sodium sulphate has been largely 
employed and frequently they contain in addition some substance 
which produces chemical change when added to water and causes a 
rapid disintegration of the mass. 

Compressed tablets are made from dried, granulated materials 
by compression in a suitable machine. They are less soluble than 
tablet triturates. Compressed tablets of insoluble material should 
not be used. 

Coated tablets are compressed tablets covered with sugar, choc- 
olate, etc. 

Dispensing tablets are those which contain a relatively large 
amount of the active drug like strychnine 1 gr. or y 2 gr. They 
are used by pharmacists and those who dispense their own reme- 
dies in order to avoid the necessity of weighing small amounts of 
powerful drugs in filling prescriptions. 

BOLUS BOLI — BALLS 

A bolus may be defined as a large pill. The term literally 
means mass or lump. Its use is restricted to veterinary medicine. 
They are made very similarly to pills. The ingredients are finely 
powdered and thoroughly mixed, after which an excipient, such 
as soap, syrup, glycerin, or molasses, is added to make a mass of 
proper consistency. The mass is then divided into the proper 
number of doses and each portion is molded into the form of a 
cylinder with rounded ends. They may be wrapped in thin paper 
or placed in capsules. 



42 PHARMACY 

Very few practitioners make their own balls on account of the 
cheapness at which they may be purchased. 

# Aloes 3 viij 30.0 Gm. 

Calomel gr. xxx 2.0 Gm. 

Ginger 3 j 4.0 Gm. 

Nux Vomica gr. xxx 2.0 Gm. 

Glycerin 

Simple syrup aa 3 j 4.0 mils 

Heat the aloes, glycerin and syrup on a water bath at a tem- 
perature not to exceed 120° F., until the aloes is melted, add the 
ginger and nux vomica and mix thoroughly. Then add about 15 
drops of alcohol. Mix and pour upon a plate covered with lvco- 
podium. After the mass has cooled sufficiently mold into shape 
and wrap in thin paper. 

or 

$ Aloes 3 viij 

Calomel gr. xxx 

Ginger 3 j 

Nux Vomica gr. xxx 

Glycerin 

Simple syrup aa q. s. 

Mix the aloes, ginger, nux vomica and calomel and then add 
enough of equal parts of simple syrup and glycerin to make a mass. 
Mold into shape and wrap in thin paper. 

CAPSULAE — CAPSULES 

Capsules are ovoid or cylindrical shells of gelatin used for the 
administration of various forms of medicines, powders, masses or 
liquids. They are termed hard or soft according to the amount of 
glycerin contained in the mass from which they are made. Hard 
capsules consist of a shell and cap or cover. They are a fairly 
popular means of administering medicines in veterinary practice. 
They may be filled with powders by placing the powder upon a 
clean piece of paper and gently pressing the shell into the mixture 
when it will gradually fill. In order to get the exact amount in 
each capsule they should be weighed. This may be easily done by 
having the weight plus an empty capsule on one scale pan and 
throwing the filled capsule upon the other pan. If not sufficiently 
filled a little more pressure will bring the desired amount and if it 
is already over-filled a slight tapping upon the inverted capsule 
will throw out the excess. In case of very large capsules the powder 
may be poured directly into the capsule and cap. Liquids may 
also be poured into the shell of the larger capsules or dropped into 
the smaller ones by means of a pipette or burette. It is needless 
to say that liquids which dissolve gelatin must not be placed in 
capsules unless they are to be given at once. 



SOLUBILITIES OF SALTS 43 

HAUSTUS — DRENCH 

A haustus or drench may be defined as an extemporary liquid 
preparation intended to be given immediately in one dose. 

ELECTUARIUM — ELECTUARY 

Electuaries are medicinal pastes to be smeared on the teeth 

of animals where they melt at body temperature and are absorbed 

-or are free to act locally upon the tissues of the mouth and throat. 

Usually a specified quantity is dispensed as a sample dose or one 

of the common domestic measures may be used. 

ASSAYING 

On account of the different conditions under which plants grow, 
the different methods used in collecting, drying and preserving 
them and the effects of age upon their active ingredients, crude 
drugs vary greatly in strength. Because of this variability the use 
of the active principles has certain advantages ; they are more rapidly 
absorbed, have a constant strength and many may be used subcu- 
taneously. On the other hand, there are some cases in which it is 
impossible or too expensive to isolate the active principles in pure 
form, or there may be a preference for the mixtures or combina- 
tions in the same proportions in which they occur in nature, so that 
the pharmaceutic preparations and even the powdered crude drugs 
are very often employed, even when the active ingredients are 
available. 

In order to make some of the more potent drugs uniform in 
strength, the United States Pharmacopoeia standardizes them to con- 
tain a definite percentage of the active principles by assaying. The 
process of assaying is a process by which the strength of a prepara- 
tion is determined. 

There are three kinds of assay processes for drug standardiza- 
tion: chemic (volumetric), pharmaceutic (galvimetric) and physio- 
logic. The physiologic process is devised for certain drugs whose 
active ingredients are not readily isolated. 

SOLUBILITIES OF SALTS 

A general idea of solubility of salts is essential for prescribing 
or dispensing them. The following tables according to Sollmann 
include only those salts in general use : 

I. Arranged by Acids. 
Group A. Salts mostly soluble. 

1. Acetates and Nitrates: all soluble except bismuth subni- 
trate. 



Insoluble except those 
of alkali metals. 



44 PHARMACY 

2. Halogen group = (iodids, bromides and chlorides) : solu- 

ble except Ag; Hg (ous) ; Pb; Bi. 

3. Sulphates: soluble except Pb, Ba, Sr; Ca sparingly 

soluble. 

4. Tartrates and Citrates mostly soluble. 

Group B. Salts mostly insoluble. 

1. Arsenates 
Arsenites 
Carbonates 

Hydrates (Ca sparingly soluble) 
Oxides 
Oxalates 
Borates 
Phosphates 

II. Arranged by Base. 

The salts considered in this table are: Acetates (Ac), Oxides 
(O), Halogens (H), Sulphates (S0 4 ), Phosphates (P0 4 ), Oxalates 
(O x ), Carbonates (00 8 ), Sulphides (S), Nitrates (N0 3 ), Citrates 
(Ci) ; Hydrates agree with oxides. Those of the above salts which 
are not mentioned with the respective base are insoluble. 

1. Alkali Metals (Na, K, KE 4 ) : all soluble. 

2. Lithium: soluble, except O and C0 3 , sparingly soluble, 

and P0 4 , insoluble. 

3. Mg, Al: soluble: N0 3 , Ac, H, Ci, S0 4 , S. 

4. Ca, Ba, Sr: soluble: N0 3 , Ac, H, Ci, S; sparinglv: O, 

Mn, Zn, Ni, Co, Fe, 1 Soluble: N0 3 , Ac, H, Ci, * 

5. Hg (ic), Cu, Sn. JS0 4 (Mercuric iodid is insoluble) 

6. Ag: N0 3 , S0 4 . 

7. Pb: M) 3 , Ac. 

8. Bi, Sb : only soluble in form of double organic salts (e.g., 

Bismuth and Ammonium citrate ; Antimony and Potas- 
sium Tartrate). 

9. Mercurous: insoluble. 

III. Strength of Watery Solutions in which commonly used 
salts may be prescribed. — It must be remembered that where 
several salts are prescribed in the same mixture, the solubility of 
each is apt to be lowered. The exact solubility will be found in 
another place. 

The following table gives the amount of very commonly used 
drugs which can be safely prescribed in water to make 100 mils : 

50 gms. (= .^iv in water q.s.^i). Tannin; Antipyrine, Ace- 
tate, Citrate, Salicylate, Iodide or Bromide of Potassium 



INCOMPATIBILITY 45 

or Sodium ; AgN0 3 ; ZnS0 4 ; Chloral ; Cocaine Hydro- 
chloride. 
5 gms. (=25 grains in water q.s.^i). Alum; Carbolic 
Acid; Borax; KC10 3 ; NaHC0 3 ; HgCl 2 ; Tartar Eme- 
tic ; Quinine Bisulphate ; Citrated Caffeine ; the ma- 
jority of the soluble salts of Alkalies, Earths and Metals. 
Smaller Quantities: Boric Acid, 4; Morphine Sulphate, 4.5 ; 
Quinine Hydrochloride, 3 ; Quinine Sulphate, 0.13 ; Strych- 
nine Sulphate, 2. 

IV. Solubility in Different Media. 

As a general rule, inorganic substances are more soluble in water 
than in alcohol. Basic alkaloids are insoluble in water, more soluble 
in alcohol. Alhaloidal Salts are soluble in either alcohol or water. 
Gums are soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol. Resins and essen- 
tial oils are the reverse. 

(In making mixtures, it must be remembered that spirits, tinc- 
tures, and fluidextracts all contain alcohol.) 

Glycerin stands intermediate between alcohol and water as a 
solvent. 

The following substances are: 

1. Practically insoluble in water. Iodine, Calomel. 

2. Soluble in water, but almost insoluble in alcohol. Alum, 

NH 4 C1, KC10 3 , Tartar Emetic, ZnS0 4 , Borax. 

3. Much more soluble in glycerin than in water. Boric 

Acid, Alum, Carbolic Acid, HgCl 2 . 

INCOMPATIBILITY 

Incompatibility means lack of agreement. It may be denned 
as that condition where two or more agents when brought together 
result in chemical decomposition, physical disassociation, or thera- 
peutic opposition. In some cases the change may be desirable 
(white lotion, black wash), makes little if any difference, or may 
be undesirable. The change may result in precipitating or destroy- 
ing certain drugs of the mixture, changing color only, forming new 
compounds without visible change or the ingredients may neutralize 
each other. 

Incompatibility is usually classified as chemical, physical 
(pharmaceutic) and physiological or therapeutic. 

Chemical Incompatibility occurs when a new chemical com- 
pound results (chemical change). It may, in general, be recog- 
nized in three ways: 1. Precipitation in which an insoluble pre- 
cipitate is formed. 2. Effervescence or explosion — evolution of 
gas, — and 3. Change in color. In addition a new compound may be 



46 PHARMACY 

formed without any apparent change in the appearance of the liquid 
with possible disastrous results. 

In order to avoid this form of incompatibility some knowledge 
of the chemistry of the agents must be understood. A good working 
basis is that substances are incompatible if used as tests for each 
other, or if they are antidotes. 

Physical or Pharmaceutic Incompatibility results in the 
production of mixtures of unsightly appearance due to physical 
changes. This is largely a question of solubility and often occurs 
when solids or liquids are added to solutions, thereby changing their 
densities. It occurs when there is a combination of such substances 
as are physically incapable of mixing. The most common physical 
incompatibilities result from mixing alcoholic solutions of resinous 
substances with water (fluidextracts, tinctures, spirits, etc., ginger, 
cannabis, camphor), but may not in any way effect the action of 
the drugs. 

Physiologic or Therapeutic Incompatibility is where two or 
more drugs are prescribed which are antagonistic or contra-acting 
to each other, in which case they may almost exactly neutralize each 
other or one may weaken the action of the other. Arecoline and 
atropine are good examples, yet no two drugs exactly oppose each 
other throughout their entire range of action and some latitude is 
always permitted. 

Incompatibility is a subject very much overdrawn and unneces- 
sary stress is placed upon it. Although it is possible to find a large 
number of incompatibilities for any active chemical, but few of these 
are ever likely to be encountered in prescription writing ; and accord- 
ing to Bastedo, of these few, the result not infrequently makes no 
practical change in the medicinal value or is deliberately desired. 
According to the same author, the following are those most likely 
to be encountered in the practical use of drugs : 

I. Incompatibility Depending on Change of Solvent. 

A. Precipitate when added to Aqueous Liquids. Substances in 
alcoholic solution and insoluble in water: as in spirits, fluidextracts, 
and tinctures, especially resinous ones, like tincture of cannabis, 
benzoin, myrrh. 

B. Precipitation when added to Alcoholic Liquids. Substances 
in aqueous solution and insoluble in alcohol : as solutions of many 
salts (sodium sulphate, ammonium chloride) and mucilage of acacia. 
Mere insolubility as of oils or bismuth subnitrate in water, makes 
these really incompatible with the solvent. 

II. Chemical Incompatibilities. Bule 1. Acids and salts 
of acid reaction are incompatible with alkalies and salts of alkaline 
reaction and the halogen salts. 

Bule 2. Highly oxidized substances, like chromium trioxide 
(chromic acid), potassium permanganate, and potassium chlorate 



INCOMPATIBILITY 47 

are decomposed by organic matter. Potassium permanganate in 
solution turns brown; dry potassium permanganate or chromic acid 
may take fire or explode. Potassium chlorate, when rubbed with 
sulphur, hypophosphites, ammonium chloride, tannic acid or other 
organic substance, will explode violently. 

Rule 3. Silver nitrate is incompatible with organic material 
and turns to black oxide or black metallic silver. With chlorides 
-or hydrochloric acid it forms insoluble silver chloride. 

Rule 4. (Mild mercurous chloride) calomel is incompatible 
with sodium carbonate and lime water. With the latter it makes a 
black precipitate of mercurous hydroxide, and forms " black wash," 
sometimes employed as an application to venereal sores. 

Calomel is insoluble in water or alcohol, comparatively inert 
chemically, and bland to tissues. 

Eule 5. Corrosive mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) is 
incompatible with iodides, many metallic salts, alkaloidal salts, tan- 
nic acid, lime water, and albumen. 

With excess of lime water it forms a yellow precipitate of mer- 
curic oxide, and forms " yellow wash," employed as an application 
to venereal sores. When the mercury salt is in excess, the precipi- 
tate is red oxychloride. 

With soap, as on the surgeon's hands, its antiseptic power is 
destroyed. 

With potassium iodide it forms mercuric biniodide. The iodide 
is of a brilliant scarlet color and dissolves in excess of potassium 
iodide. These two salts are often prescribed together to form the 
biniodide. 

In albumen, as in white of egg or milk, we have the antidote when 
the drug is swallowed. 

Rule 6. Lead acetate decomposes alum and other sulphates and 
the iodides, and tends to precipitate many organic substances, e.g., 
glucosides, from their solutions. 

The admixture with alum makes Burow's solution. The pre- 
cipitate of lead sulphate should be filtered out. The precipitate with 
the iodide is lead iodide of a brilliant yellow. 

Rule 7. Ferric salts — (a) Make " ink " with tannic acid; (b) 
make blue to reddish or purple colors with compounds of the phenol 
group, such as phenol, resorcin, salicylates, etc. ; (c) make red color 
with acetates ; and (d) form a dirty brown precipitate with alkalies 
or alkaline salts. 

Rule 8. Tannic acid is incompatible with alkaloidal salts, dry 
potassium chlorate (explodes), metallic salts, gelatin, and albumen. 
With ferric salts it makes " ink." For salts of alkaloids and anti- 
mony it is the local antidote. 

It occurs in many vegetable drugs, and preparations of these may 
not only precipitate alkaloidal salts, but may change the gelatin coat- 



48 PHARMACY 

ing of a pill or gelatin capsule to a tough leathery insoluble sub- 
stance. Alcohol may prevent the precipitation of alkaloidal salts by 
tannic acid, as in tinctures. 

Rule 9. Chloral hydrate decomposes to chloroform under the 
influence of strong alkalies ; and when mixed with camphor, menthol, 
thymol, and similar substances, undergoes a physical change to a 
liquid. 

Rule 10. Alkaloidal salts are incompatible with — (a) Alka- 
lies — the precipitate is the pure alkaloid, (b) Tannic acid — the 
precipitate is the insoluble tannate. (c) Iodine, iodides, and bro- 
mides — precipitate is the iodide or bromide, (d) Mercuric bichlor- 
ide — the precipitate is the insoluble double salt. 

Quinine in addition is especially precipitated by salicylates and 
benzoates. 

All these precipitates are more soluble in alcohol than water, so 
may not show in tinctures and other alcoholic liquids. 

Rule 11. Glucosides are incompatible for the most part with 
lead acetate and tannic acid, and are decomposed by the mineral 
acids. 



CHAPTEE VI 
PRESCRIPTION WRITING 

Definition. A prescription is an order for medicine written by 
a physician or veterinarian to a pharmacist. It contains direc- 
tions to the compounder and directions for the use of the drug. One 
prescribes just as much when he gives directions for regulating the 
diet, exercise, etc., as when he writes a prescription for one or more 
drugs to be given or applied locally, yet the word " prescription " is 
usually applied to a piece of paper on which there is written the 
order to the pharmacist. The term comes from the Latin prce, 
" before," and scriptum, " written," " written before." 

It is customary to write prescriptions in Latin. The reasons for 
this may be given as : 1. It is a dead language and therefore not 
likely to change, and a prescription written in Latin is the same the 
world over and may be put up in a foreign country with equal 
facility. 2. The Latin name of a drug is distinctive and as a 
rule means only one drug. Furthermore, the botanical names of 
plants are usually given in Latin; first, because scientific men give 
them their names, and, secondly, because not infrequently the Eng- 
lish name for a plant in one part of a country has an entirely dif- 
ferent meaning in another. In the third place there is an element of 
secrecy which is often desirable to keep the owner or general public 
in ignorance of the character of the drugs prescribed, and there is less 
danger of " self doctoring " or using the prescription for some dis- 
order or in some manner in which it would not be applicable. The 
difficulties of prescription writing are much overdrawn by the stu- 
dent or young practitioner for the following reasons : 

1. Fear that he may not express himself clearly. 

2. Distrust in his ability to make satisfactory combinations. 

3. Fear that a faulty prescription will be criticised by the phar- 
macist. 

A prescription consists of : 

1. Superscription: The heading ^. 

2. Inscription : The ingredients and their amounts. 

3. Subscription : Directions to the dispenser. 

4. Signature : The directions to the patient or owner. 

It should also contain the name of the patient, or owner, the date 
and name of the prescriber. 

49 



50 PRESCRIPTION WRITING 

1. Superscription. The symbol ty (pronounced RX, but 
always written as a capital R with the tail crossed), is always placed 
upon the upper left hand corner preceding the names of the ingre- 
dients. This symbol is used as an abbreviation of the Latin verb 
recipe, which is the imperative of the verb recipio, I take. It 
means therefore, " take thou," and is always followed by the accusa- 
tive case. 

2. Inscription. The name and quantity of each ingredient. 
The quantity may be a weight, measure or number. In the typical 
compound prescription, the inscription contains 4 ingredients, 
Basis or principal drug indicated, adjuvant, which is aimed to help 
the basis, corrective which is desired to correct some disagreeable 
action of the basis and the vehicle, a substance which will give such 
form and consistence to the preparation as to make it pleasant and 
at the same time dilute the whole preparation to the proper propor- 
tion for measure. The true principles of a prescription as based 
upon a maxim of Asclepiades, curare cito, tuto et jucunde, is to cure 
quickly, safely, and pleasantly. Applied to a prescription we have 
this illustrated as 

Curare (Cure) with the (Basis) 
Cito (Quickly with the (Adjuvant) 
Tuto (Safely) with the (Corrective) 

et 
Jucunde (Pleasantly) with the (Vehicle) 

In veterinary practice the last factor {pleasantly) is often ig- 
nored and the principal use of the vehicle is to dilute the ingredients 
to the proper dosage. However, all animals object to dosing and the 
medicine should be made as little objectionable to them as possible. 

3. Subscription. Directions for compounding, whether simply 
mixed or made into pills, ointments, etc. This may be written in 
full in Latin, but is usually abbreviated — M. for mix, Ft. — make, 
etc. 

4. Signature. Directions for the label — to be placed there by 
the pharmacist. These are always preceded by the letter S. or Sig., 
which is an abbreviation of the Latin imperative signa, meaning 
with a label. 

Then follows the signature of the prescriber. 

There is a tendency in modern medicine to get away from the 
compound prescription and write one calling for but one drug. One 
containing only the basis is a simple prescription. On the other 
hand, in a compound prescription the agents may be neither adju- 
vant nor correctives to each other and yet make a good prescription. 

In prescribing unusual doses of a powerful drug it is better to 
indicate that the quantities are correct, so that the prescription will 
not be refused by the druggist. This can be done by underscoring 



HINTS ON PRESCRIPTION WRITING 51 

the amount or better by writing after it the abbreviation Q.E. 
(Quantum Rectum). 

General Hints on Prescription Writing. The following hints 
on prescription writing are taken from Sollmann : " When writing 
a prescription for a given condition, put down, first, the name of the 
best remedy. Ask yourself whether there is any other drug which 
may be employed to aid or usefully modify this. Put this down 
also. Then consider in which form the medicine should be admin- 
istered, whether as liquid, powder, salve, etc. This will usually 
determine which preparation of the ingredient is to be employed. 
Put this down also. Then ask yourself what may be added to render 
the mixture agreeable to the patient. When this is written, all the 
ingredients will be represented. ISTow look over these carefully and 
see that there are no incompatibilities and that the constituents are 
soluble if the mixture is to be a liquid. Write the directions to the 
dispenser. Assure yourself that the prescription is grammatically 
correct, (especially the endings). Decide how many days the mix- 
ture is to be taken and how many doses a day. Decide whether 
the dose is to be a teaspoonful, tablespoonful, etc. By multiplying 
the total number of doses with the size of the single dose, ascertain 
the approximate size of the mixture. Round this off to a convenient 
figure. See page 9. Multiply the single dose of each ingre- 
dient by the total number of doses (again reducing the quantities to 
round numbers unless the constituent is very active). Check the 
doses. Write the directions to the patient (owner). Consider 
whether a non-repetature is advisable. Affix your signature, the date, 
and the name of the patient." 

The following prescription will illustrate the above. 

Single dose Xo. of doses Amount 

B Tincturse Aconiti ttt, xv x 8 3 ij 

Spiritus iEtheris Nitrosi I ss x 8 3 i v 

Liquoris Ammonii Acetatis. . . 3 ss x 8 3 iv 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 ij x 8 I xvj 

In figuring the 'above prescription, we see that each dose of the 
mixture will be slightly more than one ounce. The next handy dose 
is two ounces. Consequently we decide upon that amount as th^ 
close and add sufficient water (vehicle) to make eight two ounce doses. 

In dispensing extemporaneous preparations about the same rea- 
soning is used, except that the ingredients are mixed as you decide 
upon the remedies, instead of writing the names on paper. Of 
course, in every day practice the multiplication of single doses is 
carried out mentally and the product only written down. 

The name of each ingredient is written upon a separate line and 
all important words are capitalized. The abbreviations and symbols 
mentioned under weights and measures, page 7, are used .for the 



52 PRESCRIPTION WRITING 

quantities, followed by the Roman numerals for the required amount. 
Arabic numbers should not be used except to express fractions other 
than one-half. 

GEAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION OF PRESCRIPTIONS 

The heading, inscription, and frequently the subscription, are 
written in Latin. A limited knowledge of this subject will enable 
one to write prescriptions properly. The Latin names of the drugs 
will be learned in Materia Medica and the principal difficulties will 
be in forming the correct endings of the ingredients and the direc- 
tions to the pharmacist. 

The following rules taken from Mann's Manual should enable one 
to write proper prescriptions : 

Rule I. The noun expressing the name of the medicine is put 
in the genitive case when the quantity of it is to be expressed. 

Rule II. If no quantity is expressed but a numeral adjective 
follows, the noun is put in the accusative. 

Rule III. The quantity is put in the accusative case governed 
by the imperative Recipe. 

Rule IV. Adjectives agree with these nouns in gender, number 
and case. 

The accusative of the quantity is rarely written out in full, but is 
expressed by symbols. These rules may be illustrated by a literal 
translation of the following prescription : 

I) Tincturse Opii §j (unciam unam) 
Take Thou 

of the Tincture of Opium one ounce. 

RULES FOR FORMATION OF GENITIVE CASE 

(Mann's Manual) 

I. All nouns ending in a form the genitive in ce, as quinina, quin- 
inse. Exceptions — Physostigma, Physostigmatis, Coca is un- 
changed. Folia is plural, Genitive Foliorum. 

II. All nouns ending in us, um, os, on, form the genitive in i as 
Conium, Conii. Exceptions — Rhus, gen. Bhois; Flos, gen. Floris; 
Erigeron, gen. Erigerontis; Fructus, Cornus, Quercus, Spiritus, do 
not change. 

III. All other nouns of whatever termination make the genitive 
in s, or is, chloral, gen. chloralis. Some lengthen the termination 
thus: 

as genitive atis as Acetas, Acetatis. 

is genitive idis as Anthemis, Anthemidis. 

o genitive onis as Pepo, Peponis. 

x genitive cis as Cortex, Corticis. 



FORMATION OF GENITIVE CASE 



53 



There are a few exceptions. Asclepias, gen. Asclepiadis; Mas, 
gen. Maris; Phosphis, Sulphis, etc., gen. itis; Mucilago, gen. Mucil- 
aginis; Solidago, gen. Solidaginis, etc. 

The following words do not change in their genitive: 1 Amy I, 
Azedarach, Berberis, Buchu, Cajuputi, Cannabis, Catechu, Condu- 
rango, Cornns, Curare, Cusso, Fructus, Digitalis, Hydrastis, Jabo- 
randi, Kino, Matico, Querelas, Sassafras, Sago, Sinapis, Spiritus, 
Gambir, Sumbul. 

It is only necessary to use the accusative of the nouns express- 
ing the ingredients, when the quantity is omitted, and a numeral 
adjective takes its place. As before stated, the use of the appro- 
priate symbols renders it unnecessary, as a rule, to write out in the 
accusative the words expressing quantity. The following simple 
rules for the formation of the accusative of these words are 
appended : 

I. Nouns expressing quantity ending in a, are feminine and 
make the accusative singular in am and the plural in as. Example, 
Drachma, ace. sing. Drachman, pi. Drachmas. 

II. Those ending in um or us make the accusative singular in 
um. The accusative plural of those in us is os, and of those in um is 
a. Those in us are masculine, those in um are neuter. 

Congius, ace. sing. Congium, ace. pi. Congios 
Granum, ace. sing. Granum, ace. pi. Grana. 

The adjectives are declined like the nouns. The numeral cardi- 
nal adjectives are indeclinable except unus, duo and tres. 
They are thus declined : 





Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Neuter. 


ISTom. 


unus, 


una, 


unum. 


Gen. 


unius, 


unius, 


unius. 


Ace. 


unum, 


imam, 


unum. 


Nom. 


duo, 


duse, 


duo. 


Gen. 


duorum, 


duarum, 


duorum, 


Ace. 


duos, 


duas, 


duo. 


INTom. 


tres, 


tres, 


tria. 


Gen. 


trium, 


trium, 


trium. 


Ace. 


tres, 


tres, 


tria. 



The following is a list of some of the more frequently used 
numeral adjectives : 

1 Those in italics are indeclinable, those in us are of the fourth declension ; the 
others are of the third. Apiol and Sumbul are given as indeclinable by some au- 
thorities. Dunglison gives Apiolum, i; Sumbul, i; Amyl, Amylis is given in the 
U. S. P. 



54 



PRESCRIPTION WRITING 







CAKDINAXS 




ORDINALS 


1 


I 


Unus 


1st 


Primus 


2 


II 


Duo 


2nd 


Secundus 


3 


III 


Tres 


3rd 


Tertius 


4 


IV 


Quattuor 


4th 


Quartus 


5 


V 


Quinque 


5th 


Quintus 


6 


VI 


Sex 


6th 


Sextus 


7 


VII 


Sep tern 


7th 


Septimus 


8 


VIII 


Octo 


8th 


Octavus 


9 


IX 


Novem 


9th 


Nonus 


10 


X 


Decern 


10th 


Decimus 


11 


XI 


Undecim 


11th 


Undecimus 


12 


XII 


Duodecim 


12th 


Duodecimus 


13 


XIII 


Tredecim 


13th 


Tertius decimus 


14 


XIV 


Quattuordecim 


14th 


Quartus decimus 


15 


XV 


Quindecim 


15th 


Quintus decimus 


16 


XVI 


Sexdecim 


16th 


Sextus decimus 


17 


XVII 


Septendecim 


17th 


Septimus decimus 


18 


XVIII 


Octodecim 


18th 


Octavus decimus 


19 


XIX 


Novendecim 


19th 


Nonus decimus 


20 


XX 


Vigenti 


20th 


Vicesimus 


21 


XXI 


Vigenti unum 


21st 


Vicesimus primus 


22 


XXII 


Vigenti duo 


22nd 


Vicesimus secundus 


30 


XXX 


Triginta 


30th 


Tricesimus 


40 


XL 


Quadraginta 


40th 


Quadragesimus 


50 


L 


Quinquaginta 


50th 


Quinquagesimus 


60 


LX 


Sexaginta 


60th 


Sexagesimus 


70 


LXX 


Septuaginta 


70th 


Septuagesimus 


80 


LXXX 


Octaginta 


80th 


Octogesimus 


90 


XC 


Xonaginta 


90th 


Nonagesimus 


100 


c 


Centum 


100th 


Centesimus 



The verbs are nearly all used in the imperative mood, being 
addressed to the compounder. The following are some of the more 
common examples : Recipe, take ; Misce, mix ; Signa, mark ; Divide, 
divide ; Mitte, send ; Pone, put ; Extende, spread. 

A few verbs are, however, in the subjunctive mood of mild com- 
mand, taking the subject referred to in the nominative case, e.g., 
fiat, plural fiant, let be made. Detur, plural dentur, let be given. 
Sufficiat, may suffice. Repetatur, let it be repeated. 

Only a few prepositions are commonly used : they are ad, to ; ana 
(Greek), abbrev. ad, of each; cum, with; in, into; ad and in govern 
the accusative, cum, the ablative, and ana, the genitive cases. 

The following phrases are commonly used: Fiat lotto, let a 
lotion be made. Dividatur in partes equates, let it be divided into 
equal parts. Dentur tales doses, let such doses be given. Quantum 
sufficiat, abbrev. q. s., as much as may suffice. Ne repetatur, do 
not repeat. 



LATIN PHRASES AND ABBREVIATIONS 55 

LATIN WORDS AND PHRASES WITH THEIR ABBREVIA- 
TIONS AND ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS 

WORDS OB PHRASES CONTRACTIONS ENG. EQUIVALENTS 

Ad Ad To, or up to. 

Adde Add Add. 

Addantur Add Let (them) be added. 

Addendus Add To be added. 

Addendo Add By adding. 

Adjacens Adjac Adjacent. 

Ad libitum Ad lib At pleasure. 

Admove Admov Apply. 

Aliquot Aliq Some. 

Alter Alt The other. 

Alternis horis Alt. hor Every other hour. 

Amplus Amp Large. 

Ampulla Ampul A large bottle. 

Ana A. or aa Of each. 

Aqua Aq Water. 

Aqua bulliens Aq. bull Boiling water. 

Aqua communis Aq. com Common water. 

Aqua fervens . Aq. ferv Hot water. 

Aqua f ontalis Aq. font Spring water. 

Aqua destillata Aq. Dest Distilled water. 

Aqua pluvialis Aq. pluv Rain water. 

Aut Aut Or. 

Balneum vaporis B. V Vapor bath. 

Bene Bene Well. 

Bibe Bib Drink (thou). 

Bis .Bis Twice. 

Bis in die, or dies Bis die Twice a day. 

Bolus Bol A large pill. 

Bulliat or Bulliant Bull Let boil. 

Butyrum But Butter. 

Calefactus Calef Warmed. 

Cape Cap Take (thou). 

Capiat Cap Let him take. 

Caute Caute Cautiously. 

Charta Chart Paper (medicated). 

Chartula Chartul A small paper for a powder, 

Cibus Cib Food. 

Cochlear or Cochleare Coch A spoonful. 

Cochleare amplum Coch. amp A dessertspoonful. 

Cochleare magnum Coch. mag A tablespoonful. 

Cochlear parvum Coch. parv A teaspoonf ul. 

Cola, Colatus Col Strain, strained. 

Collutorium Collut A mouth wash. 

Collyrium Collyr An eye wash. 

Coloretur Let it be colored. 

Compositus Comp Compound. 

Congius Cong A gallon. 

Conserva Cons A conserve, also Keep (thou). 

Contusus Contus Bruised. 

Cortex, corticis Cort The bark. 

Cras, crastinus Crast To-morrow. 



56 PRESCRIPTION WRITING 

WORDS OR PHRASES CONTRACTIONS ENG. EQUIVALENTS 

Cujus, cujus-libet Cuj Of which, of any. 

Cum C With. 

Cyathus, vel Cyathus 

vinarius Cyath, C. vinar. .A wine-glass. 

Da, detur D., det Give, let be given. 

De De Of or from. 

Debitus Deb Due, proper. 

Decanta Dec Pour off. 

Decern, decimus Decern Ten, the tenth. 

Decoctum Decoct A decoction. 

Decubitus Decub Lying down. 

De die in diem De d. in d From day to day. 

Dein vel Deinde Dein Thereupon. 

Deglutiatur . .Deglut Let be swallowed. 

Dentur tales doses No. iv. .. .D. t. d. No. iv. . .Let four such doses be given. 

Diebis alternis Dieb. alt Every other day. 

Diluete, Dilutus Dil Dilute (thou), Diluted. 

Dimidius Dim One-half. 

Divide Div Divide (thou). 

Dividatur in partes sequales.D. in p. seq Let it be divided into equal 

parts. 

Dividendus-a-um Divid To be divided. 

Dolor Dolor Pain. 

Dosis D A dose. 

Drachma Dr. or 3 A dram (60 grains). 

Eadem (fern.) Ead The same. 

Ejusdem Ejusd Of the same. 

Electuarium Elect An electuary. 

Enema En A clyster or enema. 

Et Et And. 

Extende Ext Spread. 

Extende supra Ext. Sup Spread upon. 

Extrahe Extrahe Extract (thou). 

Fac, Fiat, Fiant F Make. 

Fac Tales Dosis .F. T. D Make such doses. 

Fac pilulas duodecim F. pil. XII Make twelve pills. 

Farina Flour. 

Fervens Ferv Boiling. 

Fiat Ft Let be made (sing.). 

Fiant Ft Let be made (plu.). 

Filtra Filtra Filter (thou). 

Fluidus Fluid., Fl Liquid. 

Gargarysma Garg A gargle. 

Gradation Grad By degrees, gradually. 

Granum, Grana Gr Grain, grains. 

Gutta, Guttse Gtt A drop, drops. 

Guttatim Guttat By drops. 

Haustus Haust A draught. 

Hebdomada Hebdom A week. 

Herbarum recentium Herb, recent. . . .Of fresh herbs. 

Hie, Hsec, Hoc Hie, Hsec, Hoc. .This. 

Hirudo Hirudo A leech. 

Hora H An hour. 

Idem_ Id The same. 

Imprimis Tmpr First. 



LATIN PHRASES AND ABBREVIATIONS 57 

WORDS OK PHRASES CONTRACTIONS ENG. EQUIVALENTS 

In dies Ind Daily, or from day to day. 

Infunde Infun Pour in. 

Infusum Infus An infusion. 

In Pulmento In gruel. 

Instar Instar As big as, the size of. 

Inter Inter Between. 

Internus, -a-um Int Inner or internal. 

Intus Intus Inwardly. 

Jam Jam Now. 

Juxta Juxta Near to. 

Lac, Lactis Lac Milk, of milk. 

Libra Lb., or lb A pound. 

Linimentum Linim A liniment. 

Linteum Lint Lint. 

Macera Mac Macerate. 

Magnus Mag Large. 

Mane Mane In the morning. 

Massa, massa pilularis A mass, a pill-mass. 

Matutinis Matut In the morning. 

Medium Med Middle. 

Mensura Mensu By measure. 

Minimum . . . .TH, or min A minim. 

Misce M Mix. 

Mistura Mist A mixture. 

Mitte Mit. Send. 

Modo prsescripto Mod. praesc In the manner prescribed. 

More dictu Mor. dictu In the manner directed. 

More solito Mor. sol In the usual manner. 

Necnon Necn Also. 

Ne trades sine nummo Ne. tr. s. num. . .Do not deliver without the 

money. 

Nisi Nisi Unless. 

Non Non Not. 

Non repetatur Non repetat Let it not be repeated. 

Nox, Noctis Noc. or noct. The night, of the night. 

Numero No In number. 

Octarius O. or Oct A pint (Sxvj). 

Octavus Eight. 

Octo Octo Eight. 

Omni hori Omn. hor Every hour. 

Pars, Partis Par., Pt A part, of a part. 

Partes sequales Pt. seq Equal parts. 

Parvus Little. 

Pastillus Pastil A pastille. 

Penicillum camelinum Pencil, cam A camel's hair pencil or 

brush. 

Per Per Through, by. 

Phiala .- Phil A vial or bottle. 

Phiala prius agitate P. P. A The bottle having been first 

shaken. 

Pilula Pil A pill. 

Poculum Pocul A cup. 

Pondere P By weight. 

Post cibo Post cib After eating. 

Potus Potus Drink. 



58 PRESCRIPTION WRITING 

WOKDS OK PHRASES CONTRACTIONS ENG. EQUIVALENTS 

Primus Primus The first. 

Pro Pro For. 

Pro re nata P. r. n Occasionally, according to 

circumstances. 

Pulvis Pulv A powder. 

Quadrans, -antis Quad A quart. 

Quantum libet Q. lib As much as you please. 

Quantum sufficiat Q. s As much as is necessary. 

Quaque Qq Each, or every. 

Quaque hora Qq. H Every hour. 

Quartus Quart Fourth. 

Quattuor Quat Four. 

Quinque Quinq Five. 

Quintus Quint The fifth. 

Quorum Quor Of which. 

Quotidie Quotid Daily. 

Ratio Proportion. 

Eecens, -entis Rec Fresh. 

Recipe 5 Take. 

Reductus in pulverem Red. in pulv. .. .Let it be reduced to powder. 

Reliquum Reliq Remaining. 

Repetatur Rept Let it be repeated. 

Retinere Retin To keep. 

Saltern Saltern At least. 

Saltim Saltim By leaps. 

Saturatus-a-um Sat Saturated. 

Scatula Scat, A box. 

Scrupulum Scrup. or 3 A scruple (20 grs.). 

Secundem artem S. A According to art. 

Secundus Secund Second. 

Semel Semel Once. 

Semis or semissis Ss A half. 

Septem Sept Seven. 

Septimana Septim A week. 

Sescuncia An ounce and a half. 

Sesquihora An hour and a half. 

Sex Sex Six. 

Si Si If. 

Si Opus Sit Si Op. Sit If necessary. 

Signa Sig Write, or mark (thou). 

Signatur nomine proprio . . . Sig. nom. pro... Let it be written with its 

proper name. 

Simul Simul Together. 

Sine Sin Without. 

Singulorum Sing Of each. 

Sit Sit Let it be. 

Solus Sol Alone. 

Solve Solv Dissolve. 

Somnus Somnus Sleep. 

Statim Stat Immediately. 

Subinde Subind Frequently. 

Sumat talem Sum. tal Let him take one like this. 

Sume Sum Take. 

Supra Supra Above. 

Tabella Tab A tablet. 



LIQUID PRESCRIPTIONS 59 

WORDS OR PHRASES CONTRACTIONS ENG. EQUIVALENTS 

Talis Tal Such a one. 

Ter Ter Thrice, or three times. 

Ter in die, or Ter die T. i. d. or T. D. .Thrice daily. 

Tero Tero I rub. 

Tere simul Tere sim Rub together. 

Tertius Tert Third. 

Tres Tres Three. 

Triduum Trid Three days. 

Tritura „ .Trit Triturate. 

Troschiscus, Trochisin Troch A lozenge or troche. 

Tussis Tus A cough. 

Ultimo (or Ultima) 

prsescriptus Ult. preesc The last ordered. 

Una Una Together. 

Uncia Unc. or o An ounce. 

Ut dictum Ut diet As directed. 

Vehiculum Vehic A vehicle or menstruum. 

Vel Vel Or. 

Vesper, -eris Vesp The evening. 

Vinum Vin Wine. 

Vitellus Vitel Yolk. 

Vitreum, Vitrum Vitr Glass. 

Volatilis, -is, Volatile Volat Volatile. 

LIQUID PRESCRIPTIONS 

Liquid medicines intended for internal use only are always 
administered by measure, hence it is customary to make the total 
quantity of the prescription such that each dose will be a teaspoonful, 
dessertspoonful, tablespoonful (o ss )> one ounce, two ounces, etc., 
without regard to the quantity of drugs present. The difference 
between the actual dose of the active ingredients and the actual dose 
of the mixture is made up by the vehicle. For this reason the 
vehicle is therefore varied to make the total number of easily meas- 
ured doses desired. Thus we say relative to amount of vehicle 
desired : q.s. ad §ij— iv, etc., or as much as may be needed to 
make the amount decided upon, without any regard to the amount 
of drugs present. 

The reason for this custom will be readily seen from the follow- 
ing prescription. Suppose we wish to give 1 dram of fluidextract 
of Nux Vomica at each dose together with four drams of Fowler's 
Solution, in all 16 doses. Then we would have: 

5 Fluidextracti ISTucis Vomicae 3 ij 

Liquoris Potassi Arsenitis 3 viij 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 xvj 

M. et Sig. 

2 Tablespoonfuls. T. I. D. 

This prescription then calls for 16 ounce doses each containing 1 
dram of Fluidextract of Nux Vomica and half ounce doses of Fow- 
ler's Solution, while if it should be written : 



60 PRESCRIPTION WRITING 

$ Fluidextracti Nucis Vomicae 5 i j 

Liquoris Potassii Arsenitis 5 viij 

the total amount of mixture would be 10 ounces. This could not 
be easily divided into sixteen doses, and the dose would not conform 
to the usual measures, and furthermore would require careful calcu- 
lation. 

Prescriptions containing solids and liquids show this necessity 
more prominently than those of liquids alone, because we cannot tell 
just how much volume the dissolved solid will have. 

Furthermore, such quantities make irregular amounts and do not 
correspond to usual and standard bottles. 

In figuring the quantities, although domestic measures vary, we 
may assume that an ounce bottle will hold eight teaspoonful doses, or 
two tablespoonful doses, a two ounce bottle, fifteen or sixteen tea- 
spoonful doses, a four ounce bottle, 30 teaspoonfuls or eight table- 
spoonfuls, and an eight ounce bottle, 15-16 tablespoonfuls, etc. 

PERCENTAGE SOLUTIONS 

Although making percentage solutions is a simple matter of arith- 
metic, the subject is difficult for many to grasp. There are various 
ways of figuring the correct amount, some of which may be illustrated 
as follows : 

Figuring the amount for one ounce and multiplying by the total 
number of ounces. Thus : 

1 ounce=8 drams=480 minims. 1 per cent, of 480 minims is 
4.8 minims; for ordinary purposes, 5 minims. In other words, 
there are 4.8 minims of substance in one ounce of a 1 per cent, 
solution. When this amount is obtained any amount may be easily 
figured for stronger solutions or for larger quantities. 

After a little experience, a prescriber will remember that 4.8 
minims (for ordinary purposes 5 minims) are required to make one 
ounce of a 1 per cent, solution. Then deductions are easily made for 
other strength solutions and for various amounts. 

In making absolutely correct percentage solutions all items must 
be weighed or measured, not weighed and measured in the same 
preparation. The weight of 480 minims of water under stand- 
ard conditions is 454.6 grains. Therefore 4.8 grains of sub- 
stance with enough water to- make an ounce is not absolutely a 
1 per cent, solution by weight or volume, but such exactness is 
rarely necessary, and it is sufficient to carry in mind that 4.5 grains 
(4.546 grains), practically 5 grains, is the quantity of substance 
required to make 1 fluid ounce of a 1 per cent, aqueous solution of 
solids. For ordinary purposes it is sufficient to calculate on the basis 
of 500 minims or grains to the ounce. • 

Percentage Solutions in the Metric System. Since the 



PERCENTAGE SOLUTIONS 61 

metric system is one of decimals, percentage solutions are very easily 
obtained or calculated. It is a simple matter of multiplication and 
may be worked out by multiplication. Thus to get a 5 per cent, 
solution of any substance means 5 grams or 5 mils of the substance, 
with enough solution to make 100 mils. Other quantities may be 
figured in the same way. 



CHAPTER VII 
INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOLOGY 

ACTION OF DRUGS 

Drugs produce their action in a living organism by either in- 
creasing, decreasing or stopping one or more functions of the body, 
and when used in the treatment of disease are almost always used 
upon this principle. The action or changes produced in a living 
organism may be of a chemical or physiologico-chemical nature. 
Most drugs unite with some constituent of the organism and by 
virtue of this union change its functions. Some, such as the 
neutral salts, act in great part through their physical relations to the 
tissues and it is due to this fact that the salines produce purgation by 
drawing water from the blood into the intestines. 

Local Action. A drug may produce alteration in the function 
of a part before entering the circulation. These changes may be loss 
of sensation (Anesthesia), inflammation, etc., with its symptoms of 
necrosis and astringent effect, in this way constituting what is 
termed local effect. The changes produced after a drug has entered 
the circulation are known as general or systemic effects. There are 
a few other terms that should be explained. Remote actions occur- 
ring in distant parts of the body (may be systemic or indirect). 
Direct or primary effects are produced by the direct action of the drug 
on the parts involved. Indirect effects (sometimes called secondary 
effects) are not produced by the action of the drug upon the tissue 
concerned but by the intervention of some other structures on 
which the drug acts. Immediate effects (also called primary) are 
the effects resulting at once. Late effects are those occurring later. 
If preceded by other immediate actions they are properly called 
secondary actions. 

Factors Which Modify Action of Drugs. The factors which 
modify the action of drugs are : weight, age, sex, temperament, 
habits, idiosyncrasy, nature of disease, object of medication, form 
of remedy, method of administration, time of administration, and 
frequency of administration. 

1. Body Weight. It is obvious that it would be a good practice 
to administer a definite dose according to the weight of the animal, 
as is done in a pharmacological investigation, but it is not convenient 
to weigh animals in all cases and very difficult to estimate the exact 
weight. This method has been attempted, taking the weight of the 

62 



ACTION OF DRUGS 63 

horse at 1000 lbs. as 1, and estimating the dose for weights higher 
and lower than this, but has not proven very practical and aside 
from varying the dose for large and small animals, is of little prac- 
tical use. 

2. Age. The age of the animals is of considerable importance, 
but with the exception of a few drugs, which act more violently on 
young animals, is largely lost sight of, except as the dose is graded 
according to size. Weight is of more importance in veterinary 
dosage than age, because this varies so greatly in different kinds of 
each species handled. 

3. Sex. In human practice women require less medicine than 
men, on account of smaller size and greater susceptibility to any in- 
fluences. In animals we do not see this difference, but irritant 
cathartics should be avoided during pregnancy on account of the 
liability to produce abortion. 

4. Temperament — Race. High strung animals are more sus- 
ceptible than phlegmatic ones. This is particularly so in case of 
drugs acting upon "the nervous system. The thoroughbred or stand- 
ard bred animals are much more susceptible than the draft type.^ 

5. Tolerance, Habit. This is of little importance to veterina- 
rians, as their patients are not addicted to drug habits, but we do occa- 
sionally find a horse which has been fed arsenic in sufficient amounts 
to become very tolerant to it. ... 

6. Idiosyncrasy. This means an unusual reaction to a medicine 
or food. We occasionally find an animal in which ordinary doses of 
a medicine will produce an unusual reaction, or one in which ex- 
tremely large doses are necessary to cause the usual reaction. There 
are also some animals which must not be fed certain foods on account 
of disagreeable effects due to a peculiar susceptibility to them. 

7. Species. On account of the structural and physiological vari- 
ations in the different species of animals, the actions of drugs are not 
the same for all species. Tor instance, emetics do not usually 
produce emesis in horses, opium and its alkaloids cannot be depended 
upon to produce sedative action in the horse and always produce 
excitement in the cat family. Dogs are very tolerant to morphine, but 
very susceptible to strychnine. Purgatives take much longer to act 
in the herbivora than in the carnivora or omnivora, etc. 

8. Nature of disease. The nature of the disease has considerable 
influence upon the action of drugs. Tor instance, the usual seda- 
tives may have little effect in quieting the severe pain of enteritis. 
Antipyretics reduce temperature in fever, but not when it is normal. 
In some febrile conditions, especially influenza of horses, the usual 
purgative dose of aloes is liable to cause superpurgation. 

9. Object of medication. This may be illustrated by several 
drugs. Quinine is given in much smaller doses as a bitter than as an 
antipyretic, ipecac and apomorphine in smaller doses as expectorants 



64 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOLOGY 

than emetics, strychnine in larger doses as a stimulant than as a 
tonic. 

10. Form of medicine. In general, liquids are more active than 
solids, and alcoholic liquids more than aqueous. Active principles 
are more soluble than crude drugs, powders and dry filled capsules 
than pills, uncoated pills than coated ones, and tablet triturates than 
compressed tablets. 

Besides the above, there are some cathartic drugs which are more 
active than their active ingredients (aloes, cascara) ; this is probably 
due to the presence of the extractive matter which retards absorption 
and keeps the active principles in the alimentary tract until they 
reach the colon. 

11. Channel of administration. It has been usually considered 
that the hypodermic dose is half the oral, and that of the rectum 
twice that of the mouth. However, in a number of instances, drugs 
are absorbed from the rectum as rapidly as from the stomach, or more 
quickly even, and some drugs are absorbed from the stomach and 
duodenum (dogs, at least), with sufficient rapidity to give effect in a 
short time. The rate of absorption of different drugs from the 
various channels differs so greatly that no absolute rule can be 
applied. Furthermore, since these methods of administration are 
resorted to only on special occasions their amounts should be about 
the same. In intravenous medication the dose is small because the 
drugs are injected directly into the circulation. 

12. Time of administration. This is not of any great importance 
in large animal practice, because the stomachs of herbivora are never 
empty. In the carnivora and omnivora the action is usually more 
rapid if given before a meal, because the medicine will not be diluted 
with the food in the stomach. 

13. Frequency of administration. It is impossible to give any 
rule for repetition of doses. In general, drugs which produce action 
very rapidly require frequent doses to maintain their action, while 
those which act slowly are not often given more than two or three 
times daily. It is obvious that the dose of a potent drug is less if it 
is given at frequent intervals than at longer ones. 

METHODS OF ADMINISTRATION 

Orally, subcutaneously or hypodermically, intramuscularly, in- 
tratracheally, intravenously, inhalation, per rectum, endermic. 

1. Orally, 'per mouth, per os. This is the most common way of 
administering medicines. If given for action upon the stomach, 
drugs should be administered some time before a meal, because the 
gastric juice may cover the mucosa to such an extent as to interfere 
with the action of the drug. A very powerful or poisonous medicine 
should be given during or after a meal, so that the absorption will 



METHODS OF ADMINISTRATION 65 

not be so rapid; for instance, arsenic or strychnine in large doses. 
In case of the herbivora this is not so important, as their stomachs 
are rarely, if ever, empty. 

2. Hypodermic, subcutaneous, hypodermatic. This is the 
next most common method. The medicine is injected beneath the 
skin. Any place may be selected where the tissues are not too dense, 
although the injections are usually made upon the neck or in some 
other place where the skin is thin. One should be careful not to 
insert the needle into a blood vessel. If this should occur, withdraw 
the needle and insert it again. The usual antiseptic precautions 
should be taken to avoid abscess formation. Absorption from the 
subcutaneous tissues is fairly rapid and may be aided considerably 
by massage of the part, so that the medicine comes in contact with a 
greater area for absorption. In cases of edema this method is not 
very effective, since absorption is slow. 

3. Intramuscularly. In this case the needle is plunged through 
the skin and subcutaneous tissues directly into the muscles. Absorp- 
tion is very rapid in this case. 

4. Intratracheally. This method is more rapid than the hypo- 
dermic, as absorption is very rapid from the pulmonary capillaries. 
One should avoid strong irritants and those materials which are not 
easily absorbed. The injection is made with a hypodermic needle 
through the intercartilaginous space. 

5. Intravenously. This is the most rapid of all and the material 
is not influenced by the body fluids, as the medicine is injected 
directly into the blood stream. 

Precautions should be taken to have the medicine at about the 
body temperature and to have all the air expelled from the syringe. 
The danger is also lessened if the injection is made slowly. 

6. Per rectum: Enema, Clysters, Lavement. 
Enemata are of use for the following purposes : 

1. To influence the general system through rectal absorption or 
other purposes. 

2. Act locally upon disease of the parts. 

3. For their mechanical effects. (Dislodge feces and parasites.) 
Where general absorption is desired a small amount of liquid 

should be used, as it is desired that, the animal retain the injection. 
If for the discharge of feces or parasites a large amount should be 
used. One should use reasonable care not to rupture the walls of the 
rectum and not give too frequently lest they set up undesired strain- 
ing and irritation. 

7. Inhalations. These, with the exception of general anesthetics, 
are generally employed in diseases of the respiratory tract. The 
most common method is that of steaming. 

8. Endermic. There are four methods : 

A. Inunction. External applications upon the skin or injured 



66 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOLOGY 

places of agents applied with fat or fatty substances for local pur- 
poses. 

B. Enipidermic. Medicines placed upon and kept in contact 
with the skin, no friction being used. (Solutions of the alkaloids in 
oleic acid, chloroform.) The agents pass through the skin with ease 
by osmosis. Aqueous and alcoholic agents are but little absorbed in 
this manner. Aqueous solutions are not absorbed from the skin 
unless volatile or caustic, because the stratum corneum of the skin is 
impermeable to water, and absorption from the skin must therefore 
take place from the glands which prevent the absorption of water, but 
not of other fat. 

C. Epidermic. Friction is used to promote the absorption or 
passage of the medicant through the skin, as in the case of the mer- 
curial ointments. 

D. Endermatic. Cuticle removed by blistering and the drug 
powdered upon the surface. 

Relative Size of Doses. The following table shows the relative 
size of doses for the different methods of administering medicines, 
taking the oral dose as 1 : 

Mouth, 1 

Subcutaneous, Y2 
Rectum, 2 
Intravenous, % 
Intratracheal, 14 

Relative Doses for Different Species of Animals. Fish 
gives the following table of doses : 

Horse, 1 Swine, Vs 

Cow, 1V> Dog, y 1Q 

Sheep and goat, % Cat, %2 

These ratios are only approximate and one must take into con- 
sideration the size of the animal and the effect of the different drugs 
upon different species of animal. The doses for horses and cattle 
are given as the same in most cases throughout the text, and of course 
mean the average dose. 

HISTORY OF THERAPEUTICS 

Therapeutics probably dates back to prehistoric time, when man 
cared for his own ills and those of his family and animals. He no 
doubt chose his remedies from the surrounding vegetation much in 
the same way as his food. That is, he tried many things in the hope 
that some would be of benefit. The Bible contains many references 
to medicine, and the Laws of Moses may be regarded in the light of 
the first meat inspection law. 



HISTORY OF THERAPEUTICS 67 

In the early days of medicine the priests were the physicians and 
ministered to both body and soul. Their remedies and practices were 
closely associated with religion and mysticism. They obtained their 
knowledge from others, from records in the temples, and from ex- 
perience. No thought was given as to why certain remedies should 
be used in certain conditions or as to the cause of the disorder. Dis- 
ease was often regarded as an evil spirit or entity and often some- 
thing disgusting was given with the hope of driving it out of the body, 
or some performance gone through to strike terror to it and make it 
leave the place. 

After a while the practice of medicine became too large for the 
priests to look after, so a new class arose, who looked after the 
bodily ills and gave the priests full power to look after the spiritual 
welfare of man. Hippocrates was one of the first physicians, and is 
said to be the father of medicine. He gained much of his knowledge 
from the records in the temples, was a close observer and voluminous 
writer. He believed in the theory of the four cardinal humors, blood, 
yellow bile, black bile and mucus or phlegm, and of coction and 
crisis. By coction was meant a thickening or elaboration of the 
humors of the body, which was sometimes necessary for their elim- 
ination. Disease was regarded as a combination of phenomena re- 
sulting from the conservative principles of life to effect a coction, in 
other words, a combination of the death producing elements in such 
a manner that they could be eliminated. Crisis was regarded as the 
time of union and was considered as critical. This being obtained by 
coction, it was only necessary to evacuate the deleterious material. 
The seventh day was often considered the critical day and the time 
for medicinal interference. Depleting drugs were used at that time 
(emetics and purgatives) to aid in the elimination. Although this 
theory dates back to early days, we often hear the laity speak of the 
humors of the blood, a thing commonly believed, and still exploited 
by many patent medicine concerns. It is not so long, either, since 
the practice of roweling horses was in vogue. This consisted of 
inserting some dirty material under the skin, to cause the formation 
of pus, which was then considered as so much poison that had been 
brought to the part and was being thrown off. 

Remedies were chosen solely by their recommendation and reputa- 
tion and no attention was given to their method of action. They 
were used because it was customary to use them in certain conditions. 
In the effort to enlarge the number of medicines, many were tried. 
It was noticed that most drugs of any medicinal value were bitter. 
This accounts for a large number of preparations which have no other 
virtue. Then, in some cases it was only necessary to have a plant 
resemble in shape some anatomical structure of the body to have it 
lauded as a panacea for all diseases of that organ. (Hepatica — 
Lungwort, etc.) 



68 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOLOGY 

The alchemists (chemists) while searching for something that 
would turn all metals into gold and cure all diseases proposed a num- 
ber of remedies. They made extensive trials upon the well and sick, 
and it is said that antimony was so named from is disastrous effects 
upon the brother monks of the discoverer. 

Gunshot prescriptions were soon in vogue. They contained a 
great number of remedies and were given in the hope that some of 
them would benefit the patient. If he survived, credit was given the 
medicine for a cure. If he died, it was attributed to the severity of 
the disease. Those usages led to a state of nihilism, from which 
Hahnemann developed the system of homeopathy and the rule Similia 
similibus curantur. Symptoms alone were treated and little if any 
attention was given to the disease itself. Hahnemann also believed 
that by trituration, and dilution or shaking, medicine could be made 
more powerful for good effect. While there were many fallacies in 
this method, it proved of service to rational medicine, because it 
demonstrated that disease tends to recover without the intervention of 
drugs. One of the next steps in therapeutics was that of total free- 
dom from drugs, which dates back to 1745. Skoda (1805-1881), one 
of its strongest advocates, was the founder of the methods of auscul- 
tation and percussion and really benefited the science which he 
sought to destroy. 

With the isolation of the alkaloids (Morphine, 181 7,) and animal 
experimentation, the science of pharmacology, or action of drugs, 
has developed and put medicine upon a more rational basis. 

METHODS OF TREATMENT 

The methods of treatment may be conveniently divided into ex- 
pectant, specific, symptomatic, empirical and rational. 

Expectant therapeutics means the absence of any real treat- 
ment beyond general principles of hygiene, rest and diet. This 
form of treatment is often necessary when it is desired to let the 
disease progress for diagnostic purposes or whenever nothing better 
is known. If any medicine is given, it should be the aim to pre- 
scribe something that will have a tendency to favorably influence the 
disease, and not something that might possibly do harm. A placebo 
is often prescribed for this purpose. The real object of a placebo 
in veterinary medicine is to keep the owner or attendant satisfied 
that something is being done for the animal. 

Specific. Specific treatment directly attacks the disease or its 
cause. In such cases treatment is determined as soon as a diagnosis 
is made. (Salicylates in rheumatism, iodine in actinomycosis, etc.) 

Symptomatic. In this case the symptoms alone are treated, 
without any regard as to their cause. Symptomatic treatment may 
be indicated in some cases, but not in others. It may be possible 



METHODS OF TREATMENT 69 

to favorably influence the course of the disease by treating symptoms 
in some cases, or the symptoms may be so severe or lead to such 
disagreeable secondary effects that their removal is desired. At other 
times, it may be necessary to remove them, in order to prolong life, 
so that other treatment may be used later. Purely symptomatic 
treatment is not good therapeutic usage because it is frequently 
undesirable to remove symptoms (cough when there is considerable 
exudation, etc.) which may be purely a physiological way of over- 
coming the condition. Furthermore the removal of symptoms often 
masks the course of the disease to such an extent that it is difficult to 
know whether an animal is improved or only a few of the symptoms 
have been removed. 

Rational Therapeutics. This makes use of the other groups, 
but aims at the removal or destruction of the cause of the disease, and 
to favorably influence its course by treating the clinical manifesta- 
tions as they arise. 

Rational therapeutics may be further divided as follows : 

1. To deal with the specific organism. 

(a) Destroy or remove the cause of the disease. 

(b) Avoid the cause. 

(c) Protect the animal from the cause. 

2. Treat the clinical manifestations. 

Destroy or Remove the Cause. This is largely followed in 
the field of specific infections, but is also largely indicated in other 
diseases. For instance, we use vermicides and vermifuges to destroy 
and expel specific parasites; laxatives, to remove injurious substances 
from the bowels or to overcome a paresis or torpidity ; purgatives, to 
flush out irritant material from the intestines which may be causing 
diarrhea instead of locking the irritant in with astringents. The 
same holds true in the use of emetics in cases of poisoning or over- 
loading the stomach in small animals or in the administration of 
chemical antidotes for the treatment of poisoning. The same theory 
is used in the treatment of local infections, where disinfectants and 
drainage are used to destroy and remove infection. 

Avoid the Cause and Protect from the Cause. These two 
divisions may conveniently be discussed together. Like the preced- 
ing, they are largely employed in infectious diseases, but at the same 
time may be used in everyday practice. The surgeon cleans and 
disinfects his hands, instruments and field of operation with abso- 
lutely no other idea in mind than to avoid and protect against infec- 
tion, i.e., the cause of future trouble. The sanitarian protects sound 
animals from the various infections by quarantine, disinfection, vac- 
cination or any other means of sanitation. These measures are not 
confined to infectious diseases, but are to be employed in many other 
conditions. They may mean the avoidance of certain foodstuffs or 



70 INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOLOGY 

water which appear to be the cause of disease, whether infectious or 
not, or the restriction or change of diet in certain cases. 

Clinical Manifestations. The treatment must often be regu- 
lated according to the clinical manifestations, and falls back upon the 
symptomatic administration of drugs, but does not mean symp- 
tomatic treatment in the true sense of the word. The therapeutist 
must be a good observer and use drugs only when necessity arises. 
He must use good drugs, know when to use them, how to use them 
and last, but not least, when not to use them. He must realize that 
any drug which has the power to benefit the patient if used in the 
right condition has just as much power to injure it when used in the 
wrong condition. He should be careful not to ascribe all the im- 
provement of a patient as due to the action of drugs but to give nature 
some credit for it. 



USE OF DRUGS IN DISEASE 

For the scientific treatment of disease, it is necessary for the 
therapeutist to have an accurate knowledge of the action of drugs, 
know what action he desires and use great care in making his selec- 
tion. A drug should not be prescribed until it is known just what 
action is desired and unless there is a distinct indication for it. The 
old habit of giving " shot gun " or " blunderbuss prescriptions " has 
no place in modern therapeutics, but has been replaced by those 
containing one or two drugs whose action is known. 

With the advancement of medicine the stock or semi-proprietary 
prescriptions for certain diseases, or the use of certain drugs in cer- 
tain diseases, with the exception of a few specifics, has fallen into 
disuse. Stock prescriptions are convenient and often all that is 
required, but in serious conditions, and with the modern methods of 
diagnosis, it is better to treat each case individually, and to treat 
the complications as they arise. 

It is evident, therefore, that a complete knowledge of pharma- 
cology or the action of drugs is necessary. 

What Should We Learn About Drugs? It is a problem to 
determine just what should be learned about drugs, because the sub- 
ject of materia medica is so extensive. There are many things im- 
possible and unnecessary to learn. Thus it is not necessary to learn 
the pharmacopceial definition, place of growth, manner of collection 
and preparation, physical properties except of the more important 
ones, microscopic anatomy, melting points, adulterations, tests, etc. 
These are all valuable data for the pharmacists and chemists upon 
whom we must depend for our medicines. 

We should, however, learn, 

1. The official English and Latin name, and common synonyms 



WHAT WE SHOULD LEARN ABOUT DRUGS 71 

because the Latin name is used in prescription writing and the Eng- 
lish name and synonyms are used in literature. 

2. Source. So far only as some of the most important drugs are 

concerned. 

3. Characteristics. Of only the most common and easily deter- 
mined drugs. Form, color, taste, etc. 

4. Composition of the inorganic. So far as the composition 
would influence its use or compatibility. 

5. Active ingredients of organic preparations: alkaloids, gluco- 
sides, resins, etc. It is necessary to know upon what a drug depends 
for action, as well as the source of some of the principles which are 
used alone. The composition is also important from the standpoint 
of compatibility. 

6. Solubilities. So far as is concerned in the use of drugs. 

7. Incompatibilities. The incompatibilities that are of impor- 
tance in prescribing or using the drugs should be known. See in- 
compatibilities, page 45. 

8. Form in which drugs may he obtained and administered. 
Preparations and their strengths and doses, especially of the official 
and more commonly used unofficial preparations. 

9. Physiologic or pharmacological action. Method by which the 
drug acts. Its action externally and locally, and upon the various 
systems of the body. 

10. Hoiu it is absorbed and how eliminated. 

11. Untoward or side actions. Whether there are any untoward 
or side actions which must be looked after. 

12. Toxicology. The symptoms and treatment of poisonous 
doses, antidotes, etc. 

13. Uses or therapeutics. The uses can only be briefly pointed 
out in materia medica or pharmacology. The details should be 
worked out in the treatment of disease. 

14. Contraindications. Conditions in which certain drugs are 
not indicated or in which they might do harm if given. 

15. Administration. In what way, in what form and how often 
to use for different purposes. 



CHAPTER VIII 
DRUGS ACTING UPON THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 

These may be roughly divided into (1) circulatory stimulants, 
(2) circulatory depressants, (3) vasodilators and (4) vasoconstric- 
tors. The circulatory system consists in the main of the heart or 
pumping organ and the blood vessels. The action of the heart con- 
sists of a rhythmical contraction (systole) and dilatation (diastole). 
The blood is under positive pressure during systole and under nega- 
tive pressure during diastole, corresponding respectively to the forc- 
ing and sucking action of a pump. The pause or period of rest is 
very important because it gives opportunity for rest and recuperation 
of the organ, while the valves serve to regulate the flow of blood. 
The nerves of the heart are the vagus or inhibitory and the sympa- 
thetic or accelerator. There are also some automatic intracardiac 
centers. The heart muscle and nerves may be stimulated by mechan- 
ical, chemical, thermal and electrical means, while the heart may be 
paralyzed or depressed by drugs, disease of the myocardium, over- 
exertion, deficiency of oxygen, lack of nourishment and collection of 
carbon dioxide and other products of decomposition in the blood. 

1. CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

These are agents which increase the efficiency of the heart. 
They may increase the force of the beat and lessen the rate, or may 
increase both the force and rate. The best examples of those increas- 
ing the force but decreasing the rate belong to the digitalis group 
and are : 

Digitalis Squill 

Strophanthus Apocynum (Canadian Hemp) 

Convallaria Adrenaline 

Adonis Vernalis Strychnine 

Those increasing both rate and force are : 

Caffeine Atropine 

There are several drugs which reflexly stimulate the heart and 
increase the number of beats, increasing the output of the heart per 
unit of time. Their effect, however, is but transitory. 

Most prominent of this class are : 

Ammonia Ether 

Alcohol Camphor 

72 



INDICATIONS FOR CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 73 

Blood Pressure May Be Increased. 1. By stimulating the 
heart muscle, directly resulting in an increased tone, strength, and 
irritability. (Digitalis and strophanthus partly in this way.) 

2. By constricting the blood vessels directly. It will readily be 
seen that if the force or number of beats remain constant, any con- 
striction of the blood vessels will lead to an increase of pressure. 
(Adrenaline acts in this way.) 

3. By constricting the blood vessels through a central nervous 
action (digitalis, strychnine). 

4. By increasing the amount of fluid in the vessels, as in case of 
intravenous, hypodermic, or rectal injections of physiological salt 
solution. 

The Number of Heart Beats May Be Increased By. 1. 
Excitement or peripheral stimulation (alcohol, ether). 

2. Stimulation of the heart itself (caffeine). 

3. Direct depression of the inhibitory nerves, either centrally or 
peripherally (belladonna). 

4. Reduction of blood pressure and indirect depression of the 
inhibitory centers in the medulla (nitrites partly so). 

5. Theoretically by stimulating the so-called accelerator mechan- 
ism of the heart. 

INDICATIONS FOR CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

These agents are indicated in heart failure and vasomotor paresis 
from various causes. In collapse, quickly-acting stimulants, such as 
ammonia, alcohol and camphor, are often effective, when their admin- 
istration is combined with the external application of heat and the 
injection of physiological salt solution intravenously, subcutaneously 
or per rectum. 

In shock (exhaustion of the vasomotor centers) the same measures 
would not prove of the same benefit as intravenous injections of 
adrenaline, which directly contracts the peripheral vessels, and in this 
manner increases the tone in the medulla. 

Often circulatory stimulants with a constricting influence upon 
the peripheral arteries, as digitalis, are useful in valvular disease 
of the heart with simple dilatation, especially if dropsy is present. 
A certain amount of tension is necessary to equalize the two circu- 
lations, to keep the coronary arteries well filled and in this way 
supply the necessary nourishment for the organ, and to promote 
diuresis. 

Drugs of the digitalis group act favorably in cases of cardiac in- 
competence, by diminishing the number of contractions and in this 
manner prolonging the diastole or period of rest for the organ. In 
heart weakness of asthenic fevers the digitalis group is less efficient 
than alcohol, strychnine or caffeine. 



74 CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

DIGITALIS 

Synonym. Fox Glove 

Parts Used. The leaves of Digitalis purpurea, collected from 
plants of the second year's growth. It is an ornamental flower of 
gardens, grows wild in Europe, Oregon and Australia, and is culti- 
vated for the drug market in England and Germany. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextradum Digitalis. H. Til xv — lx. (1. — 4.) ; D. TTL X A — 
iij (0.03—0.2). 

Digitalis (leaves). The same dose as above in grains. 

Tinctura Digitalis, 10 per cent. H. 3ij — viij (8. — 30.) ; D. T1X 
ij— xxx (0.13—2.). 

Infusum Digitalis. H. §ij — vj (60. — 180.) ; Dog. oj — iv (4. — 

Toxic dose of the leaves. H. ovj — viij (24. — 30.) ; Dog. oj — iv 
(4.-15.). 

Active Constituents. The chief ingredients of digitalis are 
glucosides and it is therefore subject to early destruction. The fol- 
lowing are the more important : 

Digitoxin. Digitoxin most nearly represents the digitalis action. 
It is practically insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. It is 
present in the leaves to the extent of about 0.2-0.4 per cent. 

Digitalin is the next of importance. It is slightly soluble in 
water, is soluble in 100 parts of diluted alcohol, and readily soluble 
in alcohol. 

Digitalein. This is similar to digitalin. It is soluble in water 
and alcohol. 

Under the influence of heat or acids, or when kept for some time 
in aqueous solutions, these glucosides tend to decompose and may form 
ioxiresins which have a central convulsive action. 

In addition to the above, digitalis contains digitonin, a saponin 
body, which foams with water and possesses the peculiar property of 
holding the otherwise insoluble active principles in solution in 
water. It is on this account that the aqueous infusion represents the 
activity of the drug. If administered intravenously, digitonin is the 
physiological antagonist to digitoxin, but it is not absorbed from the 
digestive tract. 

Summary of Action. 1. A direct action upon cardiac muscle 
increasing its irritability and contractility, leading to a more powerful 
systole and finally lengthened diastole. 

2. Vagus stimulation chiefly on account of increased blood supply 
but also partly direct. 

3. Vasoconstriction by action both upon the arterial muscles and 
by central action. 

4. Diuretic action in heart disease. 



DIGITALIS 



75 



5. A local irritant action. 

External and Local Action. There is no action upon the 
unbroken skin, but it is an irritant to the mucous membranes and 
subcutaneous tissues. When administered subcutaneously, it causes 
pain at the site of injection and through its irritant action may cause 
destruction of tissue with the formation of a slough or sterile abscess. 




FlG . 6.— Normal blood-pressure tracing. The upstroke represents the heart sys- 
tole, downstroke the commencement of diastole. 
(Reproduced, by permission, from Pittenger's Biochemic Drug Assay Methods. Published 
v y ' by P. Blakiston's Sons and Co.) 




Note the increased length of up- 
also the increased space between 



Published 



Fig. 7. — Action of digitalis, therapeutic stage. 

stroke (increased strength of contraction) 

the upstrokes (prolonged diastole). 
(Reproduced, by permission, from Pittenger's Biochemic Drug Assay Methods, 
by P. Blakiston's Sons and Co.) 

Consequently, hypodermic medication is to be avoided. Digitoxm is 
the most irritating and digitalein the least irritating of the glycosides. 
Digestive System. Digitalis is a slight gastro-mtestmal irri- 
tant, sometimes producing gastritis and diarrhea. On this account 
the drug is not well tolerated by certain animals. Emesis may 



76 



CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 



take place and be due either to direct irritation of the mucosa of the 
stomach or to a direct stimulation of the vomiting center after ab- 
sorption to such an extent that small additional doses will cause 
emesis. This shows that it is time to stop its administration in order 
to avoid cumulative action. 




Fig. 8. — Action of digitalis. Combination of therapeutic stage with beginning 
of intermediate stage; characterized by slight irregularity and exaggerated 
inhibition. Note irregular length and increased space between strokes, 
showing irregularity of the heart's action preceding the toxic stage. 

(Reproduced, by permission, from Pittenger's Biochemic Drug Assay Methods. Published 
by P. Blakiston's Sons and Co.) 




Fig. 9. — Action of Digitalis. 



Extreme inhibition and irregularity. 

Published 



(Reproduced, by permission, from Pittenger's Biochemic Drug Assay Methods 
by P. Blakiston's Sons and Co.) 

It may cause diarrhea either by direct local irritant action upon 
the walls of the intestines or by stimulating the walls to increased 
peristalsis. It is therefore seen that whatever action is exerted upon 
the digestive tract is not desired. 



DIGITALIS 77 

Circulatory System. Here we get the principal action of the 
drug and may conveniently divide the action or effect into two stages, 
the therapeutic and toxic. Medicinal (therapeutic) doses of the drug- 
slow the heart, increase its force and raise blood pressure. The di- 
minished frequency of the pulse is due to stimulation of the vagus 




Fig. 10. — Action of digitalis. Marked toxic Action. 

(Reproduced, by permission, from Pittenger's Biochemic Drug Assay Methods. Published 
by P. Blakiston's Sons and Co.) 




Fig. 11. — Action of digitalis: toxic stage. Delirum cordis preceding the death 
of the animal about 5 minutes. Note the weakness of the contractions and 
extreme irregularity. 

(Reproduced, by permission, from Pittenger's Biochemic Drug Assay Methods. Published 
by P. Blakiston's Sons and Co.) 

centers ; the increased force of the heart beat is due to direct action 
upon the cardiac muscle, while the blood pressure is raised on account 
of the increased force of the heart, together with a constriction of the 
blood vessels. The constriction of the blood vessels is shown by the 
fact that blood pressure will rise before any effect is shown on the 
heart. The constriction of the arteries is due to direct action upon 



78 CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

their walls, and is seen principally in the splanchnic area, although it 
also occurs in the limbs. These results, however, are seen in the labor- 
atory only after toxic doses and in therapeutic doses are very slight. 

The sum of the above actions is an increased pressure in the aorta. 
This invigorates the coronary circulation, and the prolonged dias- 
tasis allows the heart to last longer. At the same time the increased 
systole favors emptying of the coronary veins. The result is an 
increase in supply of food and oxygen to the heart for nourishment 
and recuperation, and a greater supply of the drug to the heart muscle 
to maintain its stimulation. 

Toxic Stage. The most prominent effect of this stage is irregu- 
larity of the heart, both in rhythm and force. In the first stages of 
poisoning the pulse becomes slow and irregular and the output less 
than before the drug was administered. In the second stage the 
pulse becomes rapid, but still more irregular. The final stage of 
poisoning shows a still greater increase in the number of beats until 
delirium cordis takes place and the organ stops in diastole. 

Respiratory System. There is little or no action from thera- 
peutic doses, although there may be some stimulation of the center on 
account of the improvement of the circulation. Toxic doses stimu- 
late the center, so that the respirations may be strong and deep, but 
with the fall of blood pressure in the later stages the respiratory center 
fails. 

Nervous System. There is no appreciable effect seen after 
therapeutic doses. Convulsions are usually seen in the later stages of 
poisoning. These are probably due to stimulation of the convulsive 
center in the medulla and partly to asphyxia which results from the 
poor circulation. 

Diuretic Action. Digitalis has very little effect upon the flow 
of urine in normal animals. In heart disease, however, accompanied 
by effusion, it is a strong diuretic. The increased secretion of urine 
is entirely due to an increased blood pressure in the glomeruli of the 
kidneys. The water and chlorides of the urine are especially in- 
creased, while the other urinary constituents are but little altered. 

Temperature. Large doses reduce temperature in febrile condi- 
tions. Toxic doses reduce it in normal animals. 

Eye. Toxic doses cause a dimness of vision and mydriasis. 

Absorption. Digitalis and its allies are slowly absorbed and 
eliminated. They are also slow in action, both on account of the 
tardy absorption and because their effect does not take place promptly, 
even after they reach the blood. Consequently immediate action 
cannot be obtained unless toxic doses are given intravenously, and 
even then, although an animal will pass through the different stages of 
action, death will not take place for several hours. 

No appreciable effect will follow the administration of therapeutic 
doses for several hours, and the full effect only after it has been ad- 



DIGITALIS 79 

ministered for several days. On the other hand, the effects are very 
lasting, the heart remaining slow for several days after the drug has 
been discontinued, so that there is a tendency after repeated doses to 
an increased action or cumulative action. If this important fact is 
neglected and digitalis is pushed for more pronounced effect, the 
cumulative action may lead to the sudden development of the toxic 
stage of action. In this stage the heart is accelerated and may sug- 
gest the need of more digitalis, which, indeed, may temporarily slow 
the heart but will always hasten a fatal termination. A patient re- 
ceiving digitalis should always be closely watched for a weak, ir- 
regular, rapid heart, and the drug withdrawn immediately. 

Elimination. Digitalis is largely excreted by the kidneys. 

Toxicology. The early symptoms of poisoning by digitalis are 
gastro-enteritis, irregular, full, slow pulse, followed in more serious or 
fatal cases by more pronounced symptoms of gastro-intestinal dis- 
order, such as nausea, vomiting (in the dog and cat), diarrhea, irregu- 
lar, rapid, weak pulse, cold extremities, salivation and finally death 
in from several hours to several days. There are no lesions except 
possibly some gastro-enteritis. The average toxic dose for the horse 
is 25 grams (about 3vj) ; dog, 5 grams (about oj). According to 
Frohner, death takes place whether these doses are given at one time 
or distributed over several days (3) in smaller amounts. 

Treatment of poisoning. This should be mainly prophylactic 
or directed toward the avoidance of cumulative action. In the 
simplest conditions of poisoning where there is excessive vagus stimu- 
lation or irregularity of the heart, the treatment is to stop the drug, 
and keep the patient quiet until its effects have worn off. Atropine 
given subcutaneously will check the excessive vagus stimulation 
(causing slowing of the heart) but its effects will not last more than 
an hour. If there is reason to believe that some of the drug remains 
in the stomach, this should be evacuated by the stomach tube or an 
emetic, and tannic or gallic acid administered as an antidote. Aco- 
nite has been recommended as an antidote by some, while others say 
that it is not the physiological antidote. The rest of the treatment 
is purely symptomatic, as there is no specific for the treatment of 
poisoning by this drug. General stimulants may be given on account 
of the action on the medullary centers, but there is little that can be 
done to counteract its action upon the heart. The animal should be 
kept warm and quiet. 

Action upon Different Animals. According to Frohner, the 
crude drug or its preparations have no effect upon ruminants when 
given per os. Cows have stood without any reaction the fatal dose 
for the horse (30 grams daily for 4 days) for several successive days. 
It is therefore believed that the active principles are destroyed in the 
rumen since ruminants react the same as other animals if the drug is 
given intravenously. Horses are a little more susceptible than dogs. 



80 CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

Therapeutics. The principal use of digitalis is in the treatment 
of certain organic affections of the heart. Its use in veterinary 
medicine is therefore greatly lessened by the fact that horses so af- 
fected are not only useless for work but absolutely dangerous under 
the best of treatment, and animals are not usually kept unless there 
is reason to believe in a permanent cure. However, in functional 
disorders of the heart, the drug may prove of value although there 
is no doubt but that its use is overestimated. It is not a rapid acting 
drug, so should not be depended upon in emergency. 

Its chief uses may be summed up as follows : 

1. Cardiac Tonic and Stimulant. Digitalis is indicated in all 
diseases of the heart associated with debility or weakness of that 
organ, characterized by a rapid, weak pulse with low blood pressure 
(valvular disease, myocarditis, etc.), since it strengthens and regu- 
lates the heart, prolongs the beat, and procures a longer period of 
rest for that organ. Blood pressure is raised and consequently con- 
gestion and its sequellse are relieved. Furthermore, there is increased 
circulation in the coronary arteries and consequently a better nutri- 
tion for the heart. In valvular disease it is especially useful since 
it causes compensation, prevents the reflux of blood, and relieves 
venous congestion. The indications depend not so much upon the 
location of the lesion as upon the stage of the disease. It is par- 
ticularly useful in cases of diminished compensation in cardiac weak- 
ness with feeble pulse, while in cases of proper compensation it is not 
only useless but may be detrimental. 

2. Diuretic. Digitalis is one of the most active and persistent 
diuretics in cardiac disease and therefore very useful in dropsies of 
cardiac origin. On the other hand, it is of very doubtful value in 
renal and hepatic dropsies and is of no value at all to remove exudates 
of an inflammatory nature (pleuritis, peritonitis arthritis or chronic 
hydrocephalus). 

3. Antipyretic. Digitalis is inferior to acetanilid, antipyrin, etc., 
but single large doses may be of much service in infectious fevers 
accompanied by heart weakness, as in contagious pi euro-pneumonia 
of the horse. In such cases Frohner recommends 10 grams (3ijss) 
for large horses and 5 to 7 grams (3 j 1 /^— j%) for small ones. 
These doses lower the temperature, slow and strengthen the heart, 
and usually improve the condition of the animal. These large doses 
are dangerous and should not be repeated. 

4. Pneumonia. Digitalis is frequently indicated in pneumonia 
since it fills the arteries, relieves congestion, regulates the general 
circulation and increases the pulmonary circulation. It also fills the 
coronary arteries and increases the nutrition of that organ as men- 
tioned previously. The use of the drug in pneumonia, however, 
must be entirely governed by the condition of the pulse. If the 
tension is low, the result of relaxation of the peripheral blood vessels 



STROPHANTHUS 81 

(vasomotor paralysis), it is recommended in full doses. If the ten- 
sion is high, it is contraindicated and some vasodilator (nitro- 
glycerin) should be substituted. 

5. As a Diagnostic Agent in Traumatic Pericarditis in Cattle. 
Digit alin or digitalis injected intravenously often brings out obscure 
heart sounds, at the same time aggravating the symptoms, while in 
other diseased conditions of the heart the symptoms would be im- 
proved (Frohner). 

Administration. The drug should not usually be administered 
more than two or three times daily. If used in ordinary doses, and 
administered in this way, it will seldom produce disagreeable 
symptoms. If it is necessary to prescribe the drug for a long 
time it is better to skip three or four days every ten to twelve days. 

The following prescriptions are representative of its use : 

Horse, pneumonia. 

$ Digitalis 3 ijss 

Althaese q. s. 
M. Ft. Bolus. 
Sig. Give at one dose. 

For pneumonia in dog. Hyperemic stage. 

5 Tincturse Nucis Vomicae ^l xxiv 

Tincturse Digitalis 3 j 

Spiritus iEtheris Compositi 3 ij 

Liquoris Ammonii Acetatis 3 iv 

Aqua? q. s ad. I iij 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. One, two, or three teaspoonfuls every 2 or 3 hours. 

Cardiac dropsy, clog. 

$ Liquoris Potassii Acetatis 25.00 

Infusi Digitalis 10.00 

Extracti Juniperi 25.00 

Syrupi Aurantii 90.00 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. Teaspoonful every 12 hours. 



STROPHANTHUS 

Synonym. Kombe Arrow Poison 

Strophanthus is the ripe seeds of Strophanthus ~kombe, or of 
Strophanthus hispidus, deprived of their awn, woody climbing plants 
of Eastern Africa. 

Active Constituent. Strophanthus contains a glucoside, stro- 
phanthin, which is either a single glucoside (methyl ouabain) or a 
mixture of glucosides. It is soluble in water and alcohol. 



82 CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

Preparations and Doses. 

Powdered Seeds. Not used. 

Tinctura Strophanthi. H. 5j — iv; 4, 15. D. TTL ij — x; 

0.13—0.6. 
Strophanthine H. gr. 1/5—1/2; 0.013—0.03. D. gr. 

1/100—1/60; 0.0006—0.001. 

Digestive Tract. The action is quite similar to that of digitalis, 
although some believe it to be a direct stimulant to intestinal muscle. 
Its active principle may serve as a bitter, but the drug is not used 
for this purpose. 

Circulatory System. Strophanthus acts similarly to digitalis, 
except that in case of poisoning the heart may be arrested either in 
diastole or systole. The greatest difference between it and digitalis 
is seen in its action upon the blood vessels. Strophanthus, unlike 
digitalis, does not constrict the blood vessels. Consequently the slow 
rise in blood pressure is due entirely to its action upon the heart. 
This difference, however, is not seen in therapeutics. 

Kidneys. It is absorbed and eliminated more rapidly than 
digitalis and is a more powerful diuretic. Cumulative action is said 
to be less apt to occur than in case of that drug. 

Therapeutics. It may be used in the same conditions as 
digitalis but is less reliable than that drug and the margin of safety 
is not so great as in case of digitalis. It is also prone to cause 
diarrhea. Strophanthin or ouabain are better for intravenous or 
intramuscular use. 

SCILLA — SQUILL 

Synonym. Sea Onion 

Parts Used. The fleshy inner scales of the bulbs of the white 
variety of Urginea maritima (Linne) cut into pieces and carefully 
dried. 

Active Constituents. Squill contains scillitoxin, the most 
active principle, scillipicrin, acting upon the heart, scillin causing 
numbness, and a mucilage. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Scillw. H. oj— 

0.06—0.3. 
Tinctura Scillw. H. 5iv — viij ; 

0.3—2. 
Syrupus Scillw. Horse. §ss; 15 

Syrupus Scillw Compositus. Compound syrup of squill, con- 
tains squill, senega, and tartar emetic. Dose — same as the syrup. 

Mistura Pectoralis, Stokes. Stokes' Pectoral Mixture 1ST. F. con- 
tains 17.5 grams of ammonium carbonate, 35 mils of the fluid- 



ij 


; 4.- 


-8. Dog. 


"l 


j— v; 


15 


.—30 


■ Dog- 


Til 


v- 


— xxx ; 




Dog. 


oss — j : 


; 2- 


-4. 





SCILLA — SQUILL 83 

extract of senega, 35 mils of fluidextract of squill, 175 mils of 
paregoric, ammonia water, water and syrup of tolu to make 1000 
mils. Dose — twice that of the syrup. 

Physiological Action. Squill acts upon the heart much like 
digitalis. It is also a reliable diuretic acting by both an increased 
blood pressure in the kidneys and also by direct stimulation of the 
renal epithelium. It is a more powerful gastro-intestinal irritant 
than digitalis, often causing vomiting and purging even after moder- 
ate doses. On account of this action it was formerly used as an 
emetic. There is also some constituent eliminated by the bronchial 
mucous membrane on account of which it is a powerful and com- 
monly employed expectorant. 

Therapeutics. On account of its irritating properties, squill 
is not often prescribed alone but combined with digitalis, or calomel 
and digitalis when the latter drug is administered for heart disease 
or as a diuretic. It is a good expectorant and is especially indi- 
cated in chronic bronchitis of dogs, usually combined with other 
drugs as in either of the above syrups or as Stokes' Pectoral Mixture. 

Chronic bronchitis, dog. 

fy Syrupi Scillae 3 vj 

Vini Ipecacuanha? § ss 

Syrupi Tolutani 3 v j 

Mucilaginis Acacise 3 iv 

Aquaa q. s ad. 3 vj 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. 1, 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls three times daily. 

Other Members of the Group. The other members of this 
group are convallaria (or lilies of the valley), adonis vernalis, 
apocynum and euonymous (Wahoo). 

Convallaria is the dried roots and rhizomes of Convallaria 
majalis, the common lily of the valley. It contains the active glu- 
coside convallamarin and a saponin-like glucoside of the digitonin 
type, convallarin. 

Apocynum (Canadian hemp or dog bane) contains the gluco- 
sides apocynin and apocynein. It is said to produce a digitalis-like 
action on the circulatory system and is a diuretic. It has been 
recommended as a substitute for digitalis but is a gastro-intestinal 
irritant in large doses and at the same time less reliable than 
digitalis. 

Adonis Vernalis is not official. It contains a glucoside, adoni- 
din. 

Euonymous resembles the action of digitalis upon the heart but 
its other action (purgative) predominates so strongly that it is never 
prescribed for action upon the circulatory system. 



84 CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 



DIGITALIS PRINCIPLES 

On account of certain disadvantages of all drugs of the digitalis 
group, many investigators have endeavored to isolate the active prin- 
ciples of digitalis, yet its chemistry is not fully understood. Several 
principles have been isolated in a more or less degree of purity. 
Of the numerous ones obtained, digitalin and digitoxin together 
resemble quite closely the activity of the crude drug. The different 
brands of digitalin of commerce, however, are not true digitalin, 
but mixtures of two or more principles. 

Digitaleinum Crudum. Crude digitalein is a mixture of glu- 
cosides prepared according to the method of Schmiedeberg, contain- 
ing digitoxin, digitalin and digitalein. Its actions and uses are the 
same as those of digitalis. 

Doses. 

Horses and Cattle. % to % grain (0.016—0.032). Dog. 
Veo— Y20 grain (0.001—0.002). 

Digitalinum Verum Kiliani. Digitalin true is also known as 
Schmiedeberg's Digitalin. It is a glucoside found in the leaves of 
Digitalis purpurea and derived commercially from Digitalinum Ger- 
manicwm. Its actions and uses are the same as those of digitalis. 

Doses. 

Horse. Vs—Vi grain (0.00S— 0.03 Dog. Yso—Yio grain 
(0.002—0.006) several times daily. 

Digitalinum, French. Homolle's Digitalin — Digitalin Amor- 
phe — is a mixture of glucosides obtained from Digitalis purpurea 
after the method of Homolle, consisting mainly of digitalinum verum 
Kiliani. Its actions and uses are the same as those of digitalis. 

Doses. 

Horses and Cattle. Ys — Yi grain (0.008—0.015). Dog. 
Vioo— Yeo grain (0.0006—0.001). 

Digitalinum Germanicum. Digitalin, German. This is a 
mixture of glucosides obtained from the seeds of digitalis by the 
method of Walz, consisting largely of digitonin, with digitalin verum 
and other active principles. This is the digitalin usually dispensed 
when digitalin is prescribed. It is variable in composition accord- 
ing to the method by which it is prepared. 

Doses. 

Horses and Cattle. Y4—Y2 grain (0.016—0.033). Dogs. 
■ Yao—Yso grain (0.001—0.002). 

Nativelle's Crystalline Digitalin is practically identical with 
digitoxin. 



CAMPHORA — CAMPHOR 85 

Digitoxinum. Digitoxin is the chief active principle of digi- 
talis. Its action is very similar to that of the crude drug. Its car- 
diac action is very persistent, and when the therapeutic effects have 
passed off, a smaller amount will usually bring about the desired 
effects than was needed at first. It is very irritant and should not 
be used for subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. 

Doses. 

Horses and Cattle. %— % grain (0.008—0.015). Dog. 
/ioo— Veo grain (0.0006—0.001). 

Ouabain, Crystallized is a glucoside obtained from Aconcan- 
thera ouabaio by Amaud, but also commonly obtained from Stro- 
phanthus gratus. It is also known as crystalline gratus strophanthin. 
It is a stable glucoside of great activity. The toxic dose is the same 
as that of digitoxin. It has been recommended as a physiologic com- 
parison for digitalis on account of its stability. 

PROPRIETARY PREPARATIONS 

Digalen is claimed to be a sterile solution of soluble digitoxin 
(Clcetta) containing %25 grain (0.3 mg.) of digitoxin in each 15 
minims (1 mil), the solvent being alcohol, glycerin and water. It 
is moderately irritating but may be used hypodermically. 

Doses. 

Horses and Cattle. 4 drams (15 mils). Dog. 5 to 15 
minims (0.3 — 1.0) intramuscularly. 

Digalen, Veterinary is marketed in tubes of four tablets, each 
containing 1.125 grams of Fol. Digitalis Titr. It has been especially 
recommended in the treatment of azoturia of horses. 

Digitpuratum. According to Gottlieb's formula, this is an ex- 
tract freed from digitonin and most of the extractive matter and is 
said to contain digitoxin and digitalin tannates. These are stand- 
ardized and mixed with some inert material so that the dose is the 
same as for digitalis. It has been found to be a reliable preparation 
and may be obtained in tablet form. 

Digipoten is a preparation very similar to digipuratum. 

CAMPHORA — CAMPHOR 

Camphor is a stearopten derived from the twigs and wood of 
Cinnamomum Camphora or made synthetically. It occurs as trans- 
lucent white gummy masses, soluble in all the usual solvents except 
water, in which it is only slightly soluble, (8 — 1000 parts). It may 
be powdered by adding a few drops of alcohol or chloroform to it 
before rubbing in a mortar. When triturated with phenol, thymol, 



86 CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

menthol, or chloral hydrate^ the mass becomes a liquid without un- 
de^rgorng - any chemical change. 

Preparation and Doses. 

Camphor. H. oj — iiij ; 4 — 15. D. grs. v — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 
Spiritus Camphorce. H. §jss — iv; 30 — 120. D. nt x — 5iv; 

0.6—16. 
Aqua Camphorce. Seldom used in veterinary medicine. 
Linimentum Camphorce (20% in cottonseed oil), externally. 
*Ceratum Camphorce (Camphor ice), externally. 

It also enters into combinations with many liniments, diarrhea 
mixtures, etc. 

Action. Externally and locally. Camphor is a mild antiseptic 
and insecticide. When rubbed into the skin or kept in contact with 
the skin and evaporation prevented, camphor is an irritant, dilating 
the blood vessels and making the part red and warm. On the other 
hand, when applied in an alcoholic solution and allowed to evaporate, 
it is a refrigerant and blanches the part. Camphor is irritant to 
mucous membranes and causes them to contract. It is also irritant 
to the subcutaneous tissues. 

Digestive System. When taken by the mouth, it produces a 
hot, burning taste and in strong solution causes a feeling of warmth 
to the stomach and is carminative. In excessive doses it is irritant to 
the stomach. 

Circulatory System. Before absorption. When taken in 
strong solution, there is a short reflex acceleration of the heart. 
After absorption. The action of camphor after absorption is in con- 
siderable controversy. It is generally believed that there is a mild 
stimulation of the vagus and vasoconstrictor center and of the heart 
muscle. In normal animals, small doses cause very little if any 
change in the rate or force of the heart and the output of the heart is 
little, if any, increased. The action on the vasoconstrictor center is 
not constant, as the stimulation may not be seen or may be intermit- 
tent, so that there may be periods of increased blood pressure alter- 
nating with periods of lowered blood pressure. There is some dila- 
tation of the cutaneous vessels, but not sufficient to affect the blood 
pressure. According to Cushny, " The heart of man and other 
mammals is sometimes slowed, but is generally little affected in either 
strength or rate." This action is generally agreed upon by other 
investigators, but some of them claim that in conditions of circula- 
tory failure due to lack of production of normal stimulus in the 
heart (Fibrillation), camphor may be considered as a circulatory 
stimulant. 

In Germany, camphor is used to revive the circulation in dying 
patients in which the automatic centers of the heart are believed to 

* Unofficial. 



CAMPHORA — CAMPHOR 87 

be failing. Camphor stimulates the centers in the medulla, which 
may account for its beneficial effect upon the circulatory system ; that 
is, through stimulation of the vagus and vasomotor centers. 

Nervous System. Camphor stimulates the brain, medulla and 
spinal cord. The stimulation of the brain is shown by increased 
movements, excitement and delirium. After large doses, these 
symptoms are followed by unconsciousness and convulsions. The 
convulsions have been attributed to stimulation of the medulla, but 
there is evidence to show that they are partly, at least, of cerebral 
origin. All the medullary centers are stimulated. Large doses para- 
lyze the medulla and cause death by collapse. The spinal cord is 
first stimulated, then depressed, but this action comes on late and is 
unimportant. 

Temperature. Camphor is a mild antipyretic. It dilates the 
vessels of the skin and causes sweating. It also tends to relieve inter- 
nal congestion, so is useful in colds. 

GenitO-Urinary Tract. By some authorities camphor is said 
to be an aphrodisiac but this is disputed by others. 

Secretions. All secretions are slightly increased, but not suffi- 
ciently so to make camphor useful for this action. 

Absorption and Elimination. Camphor is absorbed from the 
stomach, intestines and tissues and is chiefly eliminated by the urine, 
although some escapes in the sweat, feces and bronchial secretion. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Externally. Camphor is much used as a rubifacient liniment 
for sprains, bruises, mastitis, rheumatism, etc. In the form of An- 
derson's powder it may be used as an antipruritic in eczema, urticaria, 
etc. Combined with alum, boric acid, etc., it is useful as an anti- 
septic dusting powder. 

Frohner's Camphor bandage in lymphangitis, etc., is applied as 
follows : First a layer of cotton is applied to the leg from the coro- 
net to the stifle. This is covered with gauze saturated with spirits of 
camphor, this is then covered with some impervious material and the 
whole is held in place with a common bandage. At frequent inter- 
vals, as often as is necessary, inject spirits of camphor beneath the 
bandage. 

Camphor and phenol, in the proportion of one part of phenol to 
three of camphor, are useful in burns, abrasions and small wounds. 

For its stimulant action upon mucous membranes, camphor may 
be added to sprays or washes used in respiratory diseases. It may 
also be servicable in acute coryza by inhalation. Thus, a teaspoon- 
ful of powdered camphor is added to a cup of hot water and the steam 
inhaled. 

Internally : 

1. Antispasmodic — In thumps, spasmodic colic, etc. 



88 CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

2. Carminative — In tympanites, colic, diarrhea, etc. 

3. Circulatory and respiratory stimulant, in conditions of threat- 
ened heart failure, as in septicemia, pneumonia, collapse or shock. 

4. In adynamic fevers camphor may serve as a useful antipyretic 
and reflex circulatory stimulant. It may be useful in sudden depres- 
sion coming on in the course of acute or prolonged diseases. 

5. In chronic nasal catarrh or cold in the head, camphor will be 
found useful when inhaled or given for internal medication. 

Administration. For external application, camphor may be 
applied as the spirits, as Frohner's bandage, or in combination with 
oils or other substances in the form of liniments. 

Internally it may be given as the powdered drug in capsule, or as 
the tincture in solution or capsule. As a rapid circulatory stimu- 
lant it is best given in solution in olive oil (20 per cent.). It should 
be given intramuscularly, not subcutaneously on account of liability 
of abscess formation if given by the latter method. 

Anderson's Antipruritic Dusting Powder. 

I£ Camphorse 3 j-ij 

Amyli. 

Zinci Oxidi aa 3 ss 

M. Ft. Pulver. 

Antipruritic Ointment. 

5 Camphorse. 

Phenolis aa gr. y 

Ung. Zinci Oxidi q. s ad. 5 j 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 

Sig. Apply as directed. 

Mastitis. 

5 Camphorse 3 iv 5. 

Adipis 3 iv 50. 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 

Sig. Apply to udder. Bang. 

Intramuscular Injection. 

R Camphorse 20. 

Olei Olivse q. s ad. 100. 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Horse and cow one-half to one ounce; dog one-half to one dram 
at two-hour intervals. 

Antiseptic Dusting Powder. 

5 Phenolis. 

Camphorse aa 3 j 

Aluminis Exsiccati. 

Zinci Oxidi aa 3 ij 

Acidi Borici q. s ad. 3 viij 

M. Ft. Pulver. 



CAMPHORA MONOBROMATA 89 

Coryza of Dog. 

I£ Camphorse gr. xij 

Extracti Opii gr. iij 

Ammonii Carbonatis gr. xxiv 

M. Fiant Capsular No. 12. 

Sig. One every two hours. 

CAMPHORA MONOBROMATA 

Monobromated camphor is obtained by the union of camphor 
with' bromine in the presence of heat. It occurs as colorless pris- 
matic crystals, needles or scales ; it has a mild camphoraceous odor 
and taste ; slightly soluble in water and glycerin, freely soluble in 
alcohol, ether and chloroform. Doses. D. grs. ij — x; 0.13 — 0.6. 

Monobromated camphor in small doses is sedative to the nervous 
system. It has been recommended as an antispasmodic and anaphro- 
disiac in man and the small animals, but its results are somewhat 
questionable. 

Borneol Camphor. This resembles the action of camphor in 
many respects, but does not stimulate the heart and finally depresses 
the nervous system. It has no therapeutic indications in veterinary 
medicine. 

OTHER CIRCULATORY STIMULANTS 

Ether. This drug ordinarily has little influence upon the heart, 
but through its local irritant action may reflexly increase the pulse 
and slightly raise blood pressure. It may be given subcutaneously 
in doses about one-half of the oral ones, and is useful in sudden heart 
failure, as in shock, poisoning or collapse. 

Adrenaline. If this is given intravenously in therapeutic doses 
the pulse is slowed and blood pressure raised. The slowing of the 
pulse is due to stimulation of the cardio-inhibitory center in the 
medulla, w T hile blood pressure is raised by direct constriction of the 
peripheral vessels, together with its direct stimulating action upon 
the heart. These actions take place promptly but are of short dura- 
tion. Sometimes a solution of adrenaline 1 — 50,000 in normal salt 
solution is used intravenously in cases of shock resulting from injury 
or operation. See page 98. 

Nitrites. To this group belong nitroglycerin, amyl nitrite, and 
sodium nitrite. All act similarly but differ in rapidity and per- 
sistence of action. Amyl nitrite is most rapid and least persistent, 
while sodium nitrite is least active and most persistent. All the 
nitrites accelerate the heart, probably by action upon the vagus center, 
and lower blood pressure by depressing the muscles of the arteries, 
causing vasodilation. Their chief value does not depend upon any 
direct action upon the heart but on the fact that they dilate the 
peripheral vessels and consequently lessen the work of that organ by 



90 CIRCULATORY DEPRESSANTS 

diminishing the resistance in the blood vessels. The general indica- 
tions will be mentioned later. Page 105. 

Strychnine. This drug raises blood pressure by stimulating 
the vasomotor center. This action combined with its influence upon 
respiration, digestion and muscle tone make it a valuable remedy 
in circulatory shock. In simple dilatation of the heart it can be 
advantageously combined with digitalis. It may prove of more value 
in pneumonia and other infectious diseases than digitalis. It is also 
indicated in chronic bronchitis and emphysema to support the res- 
pirations as well as the circulation. Page 129. 

Barium. Barium chloride in small doses stimulates the heart 
muscle and makes the heart beat stronger but more slowly. It there- 
fore has a digitalis like action but is not used in therapeutics for that 
purpose. 

Ammonium Compounds. Ammonia water, carbonate of am- 
monium or the aromatic spirits of ammonia are quickly acting dif- 
fusible stimulants in cardiac or respiratory failure. They may be 
given per os and produce their action almost immediately, probably 
through a reflex action by irritation of the stomach. They may also 
be given by inhalation, in which case the action is due to irritation 
of the fifth cranial nerve or in extreme cases may be given sub- 
cutaneously or intravenously. Cushny says that in this case " the 
local action may be reinforced by a direct action on the medulla 
oblongata." The action is very transitory but may be sufficient to 
tide the patient over a period of collapse. 

Alcohol. Strong alcoholic solutions are reflex circulatory stimu- 
lants through irritation of the stomach. Their action is of but 
short duration. 

Cactus Grandiflorus. There are several species of cactus with 
more or less medicinal power, but the one mentioned above is 
believed to be the most active so far as the circulatory system is con- 
cerned. While some investigators claim that it is a distinct circu- 
latory stimulant, others assert that it has very little action. At best it 
must be considered very much in doubt. Cactoid Abbott. H. Gr. 
y i2 . B. Gr. % . 

Liquor Hypophysis. Solution of pituitary body has an action 
similar to that of adrenaline. It is discussed more fully under the 
vasoconstrictors. 

2. CIRCULATORY DEPRESSANTS 

Circulatory depressants are agents that lessen the efficiency of the 
heart and lower blood pressure. They may also be defined as those 
agents which lessen the activity of the heart. They diminish the out- 
put of the heart per unit of time and may produce this action by : 

1. Directly depressing the cardiac muscle (chloral hydrate, chloro- 
form and potassium salts). 



ACONITUM — ACONITE 91 

2. Stimulating the inhibitory mechanism of the heart. The 
vagus mechanism may be stimulated directly (digitalis, aconite, vera- 
trum), or indirectly by stimulating the vagus center through an 
increase of blood pressure (adrenaline). 

Blood pressure may be lowered by : 

1. Decreasing the output of the heart per unit of time (cardiac 
depressants and vagal stimulants). 

2. Decreasing the amount of fluid in the veins (venesection). 

3. Decreasing the resistance in the peripheral vessels (vaso dila- 
tors and purgatives). 

A large majority of drugs, in large doses, depress or weaken the 
heart by direct action upon the cardiac muscle, but only those acting 
through the vagus mechanism are of any therapeutic value for this 
purpose. Drugs acting upon this mechanism slow the heart and in 
this manner lower blood pressure, so that they are particularly ser- 
viceable in cases of rapid heart with high tension, as in the asthenic 
(mild) fevers, in the early stages of sthenic or long fevers, in acute 
local inflammations, in valvular disease with excessive hypertrophy, 
as in aneurism with high tension. In cases of rapid pulse with low 
tension, drugs of the digitalis group are to be preferred. 

ACONITUM — ACONITE 

Synonyms. Wolfsbane, Monkshood 

Parts Used. The dried tuberous roots of Aconitum napellus, 
and yielding, when assayed, not less than 0.5 per cent, of the ether 
soluble alkaloids of aconite. 

Constituents. Aconite contains an alkaloid, .aconitine, to which 
its action is due together with aconine in minute amounts, which is 
said to be a cardiac stimulant, benzoaconine, picroaconine and acon- 
itic acid, which are inert. Aconitine is a crystalline alkaloid, 
slightly soluble in water, but freely so in dilute acids or alcohol. 
The amorphous aconitine of commerce is a mixture of alkaloids of 
variable strength but much weaker than the crystalline variety. 
Aconitine is the most toxic alkaloid known. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Aconiti. H. TIL v — xv; 0.13 — 0.3. D. u\ 

Ko— 1 ; 0.006—0.06. 
Tinctura Aconiti. H. TTL x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. D. TTL % — 2; 

0.03—0.13. 
Flemmings Tincture. H. TTL v — xv; 0.13 — 1. D. TTL X A — 

1; 0.0016—0.06. 
Aconitine U. 8. P. Crystalline. H. gr. Y?,o — %; 0.002 — 

0.012. D. gr. %oo— V250 ; 0.00011—0.00025. 



92 CIRCULATORY DEPRESSANTS 

Summary of Action. 1. Stimulation followed by paralysis of 
many different nerve endings, sensory, motor, and secretory. 

2. Stimulation followed by depression of certain parts of the 
central nervous system. 

External Action. If applied to the skin in aqueous solution 
there is little if any action, because it is not absorbed, but if mixed 
with alcohol, or some other absorbable material, it stimulates, then 
depresses the sensory nerve endings, producing a tingling, tickling 
or a burning sensation, followed by numbness or anesthesia. This 
same effect is seen if the drug is taken internally in large doses. 
The above action, however, is not accompanied by any signs of in- 
flammation, so that aconite is not a protoplasmic poison and must 
be considered as having a selective action. 

Digestive System. Here we have the same action as described 
under the head of external action together with salivation when the 
drug is taken in the mouth. Large doses cause considerable irrita- 
tion to the mouth and stomach, but as in case of its external action 
there are no signs of inflammation. There is also a sense of con- 
striction of the fauces and anesthesia to taste. Medicinal doses may 
serve as sedatives to the stomach, increasing the secretions, while 
large doses may cause pain, nausea and vomiting. 

Circulatory System. The action upon the heart is due to vagus 
and accelerator stimulation and to direct action upon the heart itself. 
After a very brief period of activity from accelerator stimulation, 
which is unimportant, aconite slows the heart by vagus stimulation 
and lowers blood pressure. Since there is no increased strength of 
contraction with the slowing, less blood is forced through the heart 
per unit of time, and pressure falls. In toxic doses, however, 
aconite has a direct stimulating action upon the heart muscle, increas- 
ing its irritability and causing it to become more rapid, weak and 
irregular. As the action becomes more intense, the irregularity in- 
creases until delirium cordis suddenly takes place. The arterioles 
may be constricted for a short time on account of stimulation of the 
vasomotor center, but the lessened force of the heart brings about a 
marked though variable reduction in blood pressure. 

In therapeutics it has been assumed that aconite would produce 
pure vagus stimulation with slowing of the rate of the heart and fall 
in blood pressure, but Mackenzie, in 1911, gave large doses of the 
tincture frequently to men and in many cases obtained no action. 
Price pushed the drug in fibrillation of the auricles where digitalis 
was effective, and in rapid heart due to fevers and other causes, but 
without any evidence of a reaction upon the heart or blood vessels. 
Rudolf and Cole (1913) in a test of 55 human patients with and 
without fever failed to get any change in the pulse rate. 

From therapeutic doses there is no depression of the vasocon- 
strictor mechanism, and the drug lowers pressure, if at all, by pure 
cardiac depression and not by dilatation of the arteries. 



ACONITUM — ACONITE 93 

Nervous System. Aconite stimulates the respiratory center, 
but this shows a strong tendency to become depressed and death 
frequently results from paralysis of this center. In fact, this ten- 
dency is so great that aconite cannot be used as a respiratory stimu- 
lant in therapeutics. The respirations are slowed under moderate 
doses. They are strongly affected with large doses, becoming shal- 
low, slow and labored, and the animal suffers from dyspnea. The 
accessory muscles of respiration contract vigorously. In fatal cases, 
convulsions interrupt the breathing and, between the convulsions, the 
respirations are weaker and finally stop. The above depressing 
effects are due to depression of the respiratory center. 

Secretions. The saliva is increased partly reflexly and partly 
through stimulation of the nerve endings. The sweat is increased, 
probably by stimulation of the nerve endings in the glands and 
perhaps by slightly dilating the skin vessels but, at best, it is a poor 
diaphoretic. 

Absorption and Elimination. Aconite is rapidly absorbed 
from the mucous membranes and fairly so through the skin from 
alcoholic or oily solutions. It is probably largely eliminated through 
the kidneys and skin and some authorities attribute marked dia- 
phoretic properties to it. 

Temperature. Aconite is believed to lower temperature, both 
in health and febrile conditions, but is not strongly antipyretic. 
The reduction in temperature is probably due to slowing of the cir- 
culation and in this way diminishing metabolism to its depressant 
action upon all muscular tissue, and to some extent to dilatation of 
the vessels of the skin, increasing radiation. 

Toxicology. Aconite usually produces death by asphyxia 
brought about by paralysis or depression of the respiratory center, 
although a single large dose may kill by syncope due to sudden 
paralysis of the heart. 

In the horse the usual symptoms of poisoning by aconite are 
salivation, champing of the jaws, frequent attempts at swallowing, 
rapid, weak, almost imperceptible pulse, regurgitation of air and 
fluid from the nostrils, cold, clammy sweat, irregular, labored respira- 
tions, muscular weakness and in the later stages, paralysis of the 
extremities, especially the posterior. In some cases/ there are 
colicky pains, nausea and diarrhea. 

Cattle are said to be less susceptible and able to stand relatively 
larger doses than horses. Dogs are quite susceptible to the drug. 
One dram of Flemming's Tincture has killed a dog in thirty minutes 
with the following symptoms : Salivation, retching, vomiting, mus- 
cular weakness, weak rapid heart and paralysis of the posterior ex- 
tremities. The pupils are dilated and convulsions usually occur. 

The treatment is first to keep the animal warm and quiet. Then 
evacuate the stomach and treat the symptoms. Belladonna is said 



94. CIRCULATORY DEPRESSANTS 

to be antidotal because it not only checks the vagus activity but also 
stimulates the respiratory center and depresses the constrictor end- 
ings in the bronchial muscles, thus overcoming the difficult respira- 
tion. Diffusible stimulants (ether, alcohol, etc.) are always indi- 
cated. Artificial respiration should be resorted to if necessary. 

Therapeutics. 

Internally. According to the results of recent investigations, 
aconite has doubtful therapeutic value when taken internally. It 
has been used to reduce the force and frequency of the pulse, cause 
arterial relaxation and equalize the circulation, in other words, to 
allow the blood to flow from a congested part. Thus, it has been 
especially recommended in the first stages of acute febrile conditions 
of the young, and in those of short duration, as in coryza, laryngitis, 
distemper, etc., or in the first stages of sthenic fevers but not in the 
latter course of the fever. It has also been recommended in the first 
stages of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatism, lymphangitis, 
laminitis and mastitis, but is not indicated in long continued fevers. 
In any case, however, the selection of the drug should depend upon 
the condition of the pulse. If it is of low tension, probably digitalis 
is to be preferred, while if the tension is high, aconite might be 
useful. 

Externally. Aconite is useful as an ointment or liniment, to 
relieve pain of an inflammatory nature, as in rheumatism, sprains, 
etc. 

Preparations and Administration. On account of the ex- 
treme toxic action of aconitine, the tincture is commonly used. Any 
preparation should be given frequently in small doses, at intervals of 
an hour or less, until the desired action is procured. Then the doses 
should be diminished or the intervals increased to maintain the 
desired action. Aconitine is dangerous to use botli on account of its 
extreme toxic action and because preparations of it vary greatly. 
The amorphous aconitine is much weaker than the crystalline and a 
change from it to the crystalline is very liable to result in death, 
provided the dose has been the same. 

$ Fluidextracti Aconiti 40.0 

Linimenti Chloroformi 60.0 

M. Ft. Linimentum. 
Sig. Apply as directed. 

Delphinum (larkspur) and staphisagria (stavesacre) are botani- 
cally and pharmacologically related to aconite, but their use is 
limited to the destruction of lice, as, 

I£ Tincturse Delphini. 

Etheris aa. q. s. 
M. 
Sig. Apply as directed. 



VERATRUM VIRIDI 95 



VERATRUM VIRIDUM 

Synonym. Hellabore. 

Parts Used. The dried roots and rhizomes of Veratrum Viridi, 
green hellabore. There is also a Veratrum album, white or Euro- 
pean hellabore. The U. S. P. of 1905 included both varieties under 
the name of Veratrum, but the European variety was dropped in the 
last revision. 

Constituents. Veratrum contains several alkaloids of which 
the following are the most important: veratrine, jervine, pseudo- 
jervine, rubi jervine and cevadine. Veratrine, U. S. P., is an en- 
tirely different preparation, being a mixture of alkaloids obtained 
from a closely related plant of Mexico, the Cevadilla or Asagrwa 
officialis. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Veratrum Viridum. H. and C. ess — j ; 2. — 4. D. gr. j — ij ; 

0.065—0.13. 
Tinctura Veratri Viridi. H. and C. 5v — ojss; 20 — 15. D. 

Til ij— xv ; 0.13—1.0. 
Fluidextractum Veratri. Same as of the powdered drug. 

Action. Veratrum closely resembles aconite in most of its 
actions. It is a stronger irritant externally and locally, exciting 
considerable irritation when applied locally, and causing sneezing 
when brought in contact with the nasal mucous membranes. Inter- 
nally it resembles the action of aconite with the following exceptions : 

(1) It is more irritant and liable to cause nausea and vomiting. 

(2) It is a stronger depressant to muscles, probably on account of its 
nauseant action. (3) It is a more powerful depressant to the circu- 
latory system. Small doses reduce the force of the heart and to a 
certain extent its rate, while moderate doses distinctly lessen the rate 
on account of stimulation of the vagus mechanism. (5) The res- 
pirations are not so depressed as with aconite, and, (6) It is rapidly 
absorbed and mainly eliminated by the bowels. 

Toxicology. The symptoms resemble those caused by aconite, 
but there may be more nausea and less anesthesia. The treatment 
is the same as for aconite poisoning. 

Therapeutics. The general therapeutics of veratrum are very 
similar to those of aconite. It has no advantage over that drug for 
action upon the circulatory system. It may be used as an emetic in 
swine on account of its irritant and nauseant properties. The pow- 
dered root may be of some value as a parasiticide for lice, fleas, etc., 
although it must be used cautiously. 



96 



CIRCULATORY DEPRESSANTS 



VERATRINE U. S. P. 

As mentioned previously, veratrine is a mixture of alkaloids, but 
is especially rich in cevadine to which its action is due. 
Doses. 



Horses and Cattle, gr. ss — ij ; 0.03 — 0.13. Pigs. 



-0.03. Dogs, st. V32— 



-Vie 



gr. X A— 



g. 0.002- 



V 2 ; 0.0015- 

0.004. 
*Oleatum Veratri. 2 per cent., for external use only. 
* Unguentum Veratri. 4 per cent., for external use only. 



Action. Veratrine is very irritant to the skin, mucous mem- 
branes and raw surfaces, and in large doses to the digestive tract. 
On account of its irritant action it causes sneezing and coughing 
when brought into contact with the respiratory mucous membranes. 
Moderate therapeutic doses given hypodermically often cause dis- 
agreeable symptoms, such as uneasiness, perspiration, colicky pains, 
increased peristalsis, passage of urine and feces, muscular trembling 
and weakness. These symptoms should be kept in mind because 
they may be caused by therapeutic doses. 




Fig. 12. — Tracings of muscular contractions from gastrocnemius of the frog. 
a, normal; b, three successive contractions taken at one minute intervals, 
five minutes after the injection of veratrine. 

(Reproduced, by permission, from Cushny, Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Published 

by Lea and Febiger.) 

Muscles. Veratrine has a specific action upon all striated 
muscle. Fatigued muscles are said to regain their activity more 
quickly under the influence of veratrine and the heart to beat four 
times as strongly (Frohner). Its action upon striated muscle is 
peculiar in that a muscle under the influence of veratrine will respond 
to stimuli and contract as rapidly as normal muscle but the period 
of relaxation is much prolonged. 

* Unofficial. 



VERATRINE U. S. P. 97 

Cardiac Muscle. The action upon the heart corresponds exactly 
with its action on other striated muscle, consisting of a rapid contrac- 
tion and prolonged relaxation. 

Circulatory System. In general veratrine closely resembles 
aconite. Therapeutic doses slow the heart through central vagus 
stimulation. Blood pressure falls on account of slowing of the heart, 
although there may be some vasomotor stimulation. Large doses 
paralyze- the vagus mechanism, so that the heart is quickened, but 
blood pressure does not rise because the vasomotor center is so de- 
pressed. Toxic doses accelerate the heart and cause it to become 
irregular through paralysis of the heart muscle, vagus endings and 
vasomotor center. 

In poisoning, consciousness remains for a long time. Three 
grains (0.2 gm.) produced toxic symptoms in a horse with symptoms 
of gastroenteritis, excitement, uneasiness, muscular contractions, con- 
vulsions and paralysis. Horses have been killed by doses of from 
7^2 to 15 grains (0.5 — 1.), although there seems to be some idiosyn- 
crasy in regard to the drug and some difference in the various 
preparations. Two young horses were killed by doses of 1/4 grains 
(0.1 gm.) in sixteen and twenty hours respectively, yet these must 
be considered as ordinary therapeutic doses for the horse. On the 
other hand, 6 grains (0.4 gm.) have been administered without alarm- 
ing symptoms (Frohner). 

Therapeutics. Veratrine is not used to a very large extent in 
this country. In Germany it is recommended for the following: 

1. Tor the same general class of symptoms for which aconite is 
indicated. 

2 As an emetic for swine: /i — Y2 gr. (0.02—0.04 gm.) hypo- 
dermically in 2 to 4 mils of alcohol. Dogs would require gr. %2 — 
V\q (0.002 — 0.004 gm.) but other agents are to be preferred. 

3. As a stomachic and ruminatorium for various forms of indiges- 
tion in ruminants. It is also frequently employed as an emetic for 
ruminants, in overloaded or impacted rumen. 

4. As a nerve stimulant in paralysis of the muscles from various 
causes, but the indications for it are probably largely overrated. 

5. As an antirheumatic in chronic rheumatism, shoulder and hip 
lameness of the horse. In this instance it is injected in the region 
of the diseased muscle, starting with very small doses and gradually 
increasing them daily. 

Arecovetrol consists of 8 capsules, four of which (A) contains 
1% grains of arecoline and nux vomica and four of which (B) con- 
tain 1% grains of veratrine and nux vomica. This is recommended 
in indigestion in cattle and as a diagnostic agent in traumatic gas- 
tritis. Dose: Alternate a capsule of A with one of B every two 
to three hours ; administer in a mucilaginous drink. Eight capsules 
constitute a treatment. (G. Hailing, Lasdehen, Ostpr., Germany.) 



98 VASOCONSTRICTORS 

3. VASOCONSTRICTORS 

Vasoconstrictors are drugs which constrict the peripheral arte- 
rioles. They may act by : 

1. Stimulating the vasomotor center (atropine, caffeine, strych- 
nine). 

2. Stimulating the muscles of the arterial walls directly (adrena- 
line). 

3. Acting both centrally and peripherally (digitalis, ergot, 
cocaine). 

Vasoconstrictors raise blood pressure, tend to lessen the number 
of the heart's beats by increasing the tonus in the medulla and 
stimulate respiration. They are indicated internally in conditions of 
low arterial tension, as collapse and shock. 

Vasodilators act directly opposite to the constrictors. The most 
important members of this group are the nitrites and especially the 
organic nitrites (nitroglycerin, erythrol, etc.). These act periph- 
erally and are indicated when it is desired to lower arterial pres- 
sure so as to facilitate the passage of blood through the vessels and in 
this way lessen the work of the heart. 

EPINEPHRINA — EPINEPHRINE 

Synonyms. Adrenaline, Suprarenaline, Superacapsuline. 

This is an alkaloid obtained from the extract of the suprarenal 
glands of animals used as food for man. This preparation is sold 
under various trade names, adrenaline, supracapsuline, suprarena- 
line, etc., in a solution supposed to be of the strength of one part of 
adrenaline chloride to one thousand. This solution is not decom- 
posed by a moment's boiling and consequently may be sterilized by 
heat, but prolonged boiling decomposes it. On long standing, or 
when diluted, it slowly deteriorates, changing to a pinkish color, and 
finally forms a precipitate. It should be discarded upon the appear- 
ance of a precipitate. There is a synthetic preparation, " supra- 
renin," of about half the strength of the above. 

The dried glands are official as " Suprarenalum Siccum." 

Preparations and Doses. 

Solution of Adrenaline chloride 1 — 1000. 

Subcutaneously . Horses and Cattle. 5j — ij ; 4 — 8. Dogs. 
TTt iij— vii'j ; 0.2 — 0.5. 

Intravenously. Dilute with ten parts of physiological salt 
solution. Dose of the mixture : Horses and Cattle. 5ss 
— ij; 2—8. Dogs. 171 ij— viij ; 0.13—0.5. 

In shock give intravenously in the proportion of 1 — 50,000 in 
physiological salt solution. The injection should be made slowly and 
as needed. 



. o be 2 m 




EPINEPHRINA — EPINEPHRINE 99 

Action. Externally and locally. There is no action upon the 
unbroken skin, but if it is applied to mucous membranes or raw 
surfaces, it penetrates sufficiently to stimulate the vasoconstrictor 
nerve endings of the arterioles at the site of application. This 
results in a local constriction of the arterioles, which is so marked 
that the blood is almost completely shut off, and as a consequence, 
the tissues shrink and become very pale and bloodless, so that any 
moderate hemorrhage is checked. This local vasoconstriction is 
greater than from any other drug known. This action is produced 
very quickly and lasts from ten to twenty minutes to two hours, but 
may be prolonged at will by repeated applications. Vasodilation 
follows vasoconstriction, so that when the drug is withdrawn or its 
effects wear off, the arterioles not only relax, but may go beyond their 
normal tone and there may be a return of the conditions for which 
it was applied, hemorrhage, etc. The cause of the vasodilation is in 
controversy. 

Absorption. The drug is not absorbed rapidly enough from the 
mucous membranes or digestive tract to produce systemic effect, 
probably on account of the vasoconstriction of the parts with which 
it comes in contact. 

Subcutaneous tissues. A slight rise of blood pressure often fol- 
lows the hypodermic administration of adrenaline, but it is not con- 
stant and cannot be relied upon. 

Intramuscular injection. Enough may be absorbed from deep 
muscular injections to cause a rise of blood pressure and relax the 
bronchioles. 

Intravenous injection. When given in small doses intravenously, 
adrenaline greatly increases blood pressure and slows and strengthens 
the heart. The increased pressure is largely due to a direct constrict- 
ing action upon the arterioles but also, to a lesser extent, to stimula- 
tion of the heart muscle. The pulse is slowed by direct action on the 
vagus center and also by an indirect action on this center through an 
increased blood supply. The vasoconstriction is largely peripheral, 
as can be seen from its local application to mucous membranes or 
after the central nervous system has been destroyed. 

Respiratory System. Small doses of adrenaline administered 
hypodermically cause increased depth of the respirations, while 
larger doses quicken the respirations but render them shallow. 

Muscles. The action of adrenaline varies somewhat upon plain 
muscle. Thus it has a constricting influence upon the ureter, vas 
deferens and seminal vesicles in the male, and the uterus and vagina 
in the female, while it retards movements of the stomach and bowels. 

Glands. Certain glands are stimulated so that there is an in- 
creased secretion of saliva, tears, bile and bronchial mucus. 

Duration of Action. The period of action of adrenaline is very- 
short, lasting but a few minutes. There is no characteristic action 



100 VASOCONSTRICTORS 

when administered per os, and little if any action unless given intra- 
venously, yet clinical experience points to a fairly good absorption 
from the subcutaneous tissues. The effects of intravenous doses 
vary with the dose. The results of increasing doses according to 
Sollmann are : 

1. Rise of blood pressure. 

2. Inhibition of the bladder, mydriasis. 

3. Constriction of the uterus, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles, 
salivation, lachrimation, inhibition of the gall bladder, increased 
bile secretion, stimulation or depression of the internal anal sphinc- 
ter. 

4. Contraction of the erectores pilorum. 

5. Uncertain action upon the tunica dartos and sweat. 

Therapeutics. 1. Circulatory stimulant. Since the character- 
istic action of the drug is produced only after intravenous administra- 
tion, and even then its effects are very transient, it is not used to a 
large extent as a circulatory stimulant in veterinary medicine. It 
may be very useful in collapse and shock during anesthesia because in 
this condition there is usually a good heart muscle but marked vaso- 
dilation. For the best results, it should be given slowly as an infu- 
sion as mentioned under circulatory stimulants. 

2. Vasoconstrictor. As a local vasoconstrictor its use is limited to 
the relief of congestion of mucous membranes and the control of 
hemorrhage in operations. It is frequently used in combination with 
some local anesthetic, in which case it not only prevents hemorrhage 
and makes the operation bloodless but also retards the absorption of 
the anesthetic and thus prolongs the anesthesia. It is said to be 
worthless in distant hemorrhages but clinical experience points in the 
other direction. 

3. Azoturia. Adrenaline was at one time very highly recom- 
mended in the treatment of azoturia. It was used in dram doses 
subcutaneously in treating this disease. 

4. Laminitis. Adrenaline is recommended by several prac- 
titioners in the treatment of founder. The drug is to be injected 
subcutaneously in the region of the plantar nerves of the affected 
limbs. 

PITUITARY BODY. HYPOPHYSIS SICCA 

Liquor Hypophysis. This is a solution of the water soluble 
principle or principles obtained from the fresh posterior lobe of the 
pituitary body of cattle. One company markets the preparation 
under the trade name " Pituitrin," although as yet no active prin- 
ciple has been isolated. 

Doses. Horses and Cattle. 3ij — ijss; 8.0 — 10.0. Dogs, fllviij 
— xvj ; 0.5—1.0. 

Action. The most prominent feature of the action of this drug 



HYPOPHYSIS SICCA 101 

is its similarity to adrenaline, from which it differs mainly in being 
slightly slower and somewhat more persistent (2-3 times) in action. 
The effect of pituitrin, on the other hand, is brought about in a 
different way than that of adrenaline, in that its action upon the 
heart and blood vessels is due to direct action upon the muscles and 
not through the nerve endings. 

Uterus. The plain muscle of the uterus is so stimulated by deep 
muscular or hypodermic injections that the drug has been recom- 
mended for use in uterine inertia. 

Milk. Many investigators have experimented with pituitrin 
upon the secretion of milk. It is generally conceded that the injec- 
tion of pituitary extract will increase, temporarily at least, the 
amount of milk and the per cent, of fat. Simpson and Hill, ex- 
perimenting upon goats and cows, conclude as follows : 

" Goats. The administration of pituitary extract, by intrave- 
nous, muscular or subcutaneous injection, to a lactating animal leads 
to an increase in the quantity of milk secreted and also in its fat con- 
tent. In the goat, if the injection be continued at intervals over a 
prolonged period — several months — immunity to its action on the 
ma mm ary gland appears to be established both in regard to the 
amount of milk yielded and the percentage of fat it contains. 

" Cow. 1. In the cow, the intravenous injection of pituitary 
extract (whole glands or posterior lobe alone) leads to an immediate 
secretion of milk very rich in fat. The effect, however, quickly 
passes off. 

" 2. There is a corresponding diminution of milk at the next 
milking period, and to some extent in the percentage of fat, so that 
for the twenty-four hours, there is practically no increase either in 
the quantity of milk or of fat obtained." 

Toxicology. Pituitary extract is comparatively nontoxic, ac- 
cording to Haughton, who gave a 500 gram guinea pig 15 mils per 
os. or 3 mils hypodermically without causing toxic symptoms. 

Urine. Pituitary extract is a marked diuretic, producing its 
action by a local dilatation of the renal vessels and probably by 
stimulating the renal cells. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Dystohia. In dystokia due to uterine inertia, especially in 
dogs, cats and swine. 

2. Prevent hemorrhage. According to Gorton, solution of the 
pituitary body increases the coagulability of the blood when given 
subcutaneously and greatly diminishes hemorrhage when adminis- 
tered a few minutes previous to operating upon the nose and throat. 

3. Shock. Hypodermic injections of the solution may be useful 
in shock from anesthesia or operations. 



102 VASOCONSTRICTORS 

METHODS OF INCREASING THE VOLUME OF BLOOD IN THE 

ARTERIES 

The principal methods of increasing the volume of blood in the 
arteries are : 

1. Transfusion of blood. 

2. Administration of saline solution by intravenous infusion, 
hypodermoclvsis or rectal injection. 

Transfusion of blood. This is usually accomplished by trans- 
mitting the blood from an artery of one animal to the vein or artery 
of another. It requires very careful technic and is comparatively 
dangerous since clotting may take place, disease may be transmitted 
and hemolysis may occur. It has, however, the advantage over nor- 
mal saline infusion in that nourishment is supplied, oxyhemoglobin 
furnished and, furthermore, the added fluid is not so easily transuded 
out of the vessels or excreted so rapidly as salt solution and conse- 
quently tends to maintain increased pressure for a longer time. 

Uses. 1. In collapse and shock from any cause, but especially 
from bleeding. 

2. Poisoning by carbon monoxide (illuminating gas) after re- 
moving a portion of the blood of the patient by venesection. 

3. Profound malnutrition. 

4. Profound anemia of secondary type or from hemorrhage. 

5. Protracted weakness or prostration. 

Saline Infusion. This means the injection of normal or phy- 
siological saline solution, warmed to a temperature of 110° -115° P., 
toward the heart. jSTormal saline solution is 0.85 per cent, of sodium 
chloride, corresponding to about one full teaspoonful to a pint of 
water. This is the most popular of all infusion fluids, but is not 
generally considered as the best one on account of the absence of all 
other salts, especially calcium and potassium, which are needed in 
the tissues and, according to Jacques Loeb, prevent the poisoning by 
sodium chloride, and furthermore, since its reaction is not alkaline, 
it is not generally considered the best solution. In fact, it is now 
believed that hard drinking water, which contains calcium, is better 
than distilled water for making infusions. This is because pure 
sodium chloride injected intravenously is poisonous and normal 
saline solution in distilled water has a veratrine-like action upon 
muscle, i.e., increased contraction with prolonged relaxation, but if 
a slight amount of calcium is present this is prevented. Ordinary 
table salt usually contains some calcium. 

Dawson's Solution. This contains 0.8 per cent, of sodium 
chloride with 0.5 per cent, of sodium bicarbonate. 

Locke's Solution is probably the best of all according to most 
authorities. It contains Sodium Chloride 0.9 gm., Potassium Chlo- 
ride 0.042 gm., Calcium Chloride 0.024 gm., Sodium Bicarbonate 



INCREASING VOLUME OF BLOOD 103 

0.03 gm., Dextrose 0.1 gm., and Distilled Water enough to make 
100.0 mils. This solution contains the necessary salts, is alkaline 
and nutritive. 

Ringer-Locke Solution is the same as Locke's solution without 
the dextrose. 

Ringer s Solution adapted especially for laboratory work upon 
frogs and turtles contains 0.7 per cent, of sodium chloride with the 
chlorides of potash and calcium. 

It is necessary in order to understand the effects of saline solu- 
tions in the body to know and understand such physiologic terms as 
filtration, diffusion and osmosis and the characteristics of isotonic, 
hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. This is better discussed in the 
texts on physiology than can be attempted in this work. Since large 
amounts of fluid are passed into the blood in infusion, solutions 
should be as near isotonic with the blood as possible for the follow- 
ing reasons : 

If a hypertonic solution is used, i.e., one that contains too much 
salt, the blood abstracts fluid from the tissues, which still further 
dilutes it and increases its volume. Furthermore, a strong hyper- 
tonic solution would injure the blood cells. On the other hand, a 
hypotonic solution tends to lake the blood. The effects of salines also 
differ greatly according to whether the volume of the blood has been 
reduced below normal or not. 

When the Volume of Blood Is Not Decreased. There is so 
strong a tendency in normal animals for the blood to regain its nor- 
mal condition that the regulating mechanism starts almost as soon as 
the infusion is begun. The increased blood pressure causes an in- 
creased pouring out of weak lymph and this is followed by the 
elimination of liquid through the intestines and kidneys (Starling), 
so that according to Crile the volume of blood will return to normal 
within half an hour and its constituents regain the usual propor- 
tions. 

On account of the above actions, the addition of saline has only 
a transitory mild effect upon blood pressure, and chiefly increases 
urination and tendency to edema. 

Crile found, further, that the dilution of the blood does not 
prevent the action of circulatory stimulants; and that if vasocon- 
strictors are administered at the same time as the infusion, the pres- 
sure could be raised above normal for a time ; but when the splanch- 
nic arteries were excluded, the dilution of the blood took place so 
rapidly with the progress of the infusion that edema set in very 
rapidly although the pressure was not necessarily raised. Hence in 
intravenous infusions, since the fluid must pass to the right heart 
and to the lungs first, pulmonary edema is favored; and especially 
is this the case if at the same time there is a marked back pressure- 
in the left heart from constriction of the peripheral arterioles.. 



104 VASOCONSTRICTORS 

Therefore, as might be expected, pulmonary edema is readily brought 
about by a combination of saline and adrenaline. 

Summary. When the volume of blood has not been reduced, 
saline infusion is generally useless to raise arterial pressure, and by 
producing edema may cause serious consequences. If used as a 
medium for the administration of drugs, it should be supplied in 
small quantities and slowly introduced. 

When the Volume of Blood Is Notably Below Normal as 
After a Severe Hemorrhage. According to Levin, 25 — 50 per 
cent, of an animal's blood may be removed and replaced with normal 
saline solution without serious consequences. Crile found that after 
a moderate hemorrhage a saline infusion would increase the volume 
of blood and maintain a normal arterial pressure for a considerable 
time. He found also that the period of coagulation was reduced, 
infusion evidently favoring the cessation of the hemorrhage. Conse- 
quently salines are valuable to replace the lost blood and may be 
used with advantage whether bleeding has stopped or not. A few 
other observations by Crile are: The temperature of the infusion, 
if within reasonable limits, has little if any effect upon the temper- 
ature of the patient or the heart beat. The rate of flow makes no 
difference in the extent of the effect upon arterial pressure. The 
effect upon respiration is an increase in frequency and depth, but 
from greater than safe amounts, the breathing becomes slowed and 
there regularly follow edema of the lungs and death from respira- 
tory failure. 

Therapeutics. 1. In hemorrhage to restore the volume of 
blood to normal and thus permit the maintenance of blood pressure. 
At the same time if the hemorrhage is still in progress, the infusion 
may check it by increasing the coagulability of the blood (as in 
hemorrhage from injury or operation). Oxygen may first be passed 
through the fluid, since it is found that if the saline is saturated with 
oxygen, it favors the transference of oxygen to the tissues at the 
capillaries. 

2. In toxemic conditions to promote kidney activity and hasten 
elimination of the poison. Levin does not consider bleeding followed 
by infusion as reliable treatment in toxemias since he was unable to 
get appreciable results in artificial toxemias. In nephritis with 
edema, salt retention contraindicates the -use of salines. 

3. In severe collapse and shock a small saline infusion combined 
with adrenaline (of about 500 mils, in man), given slowly and re- 
peated as necessary, may produce and maintain blood pressure. 
Large infusions or one containing much adrenaline simply favor 
edema. A saline may replace the blood lost in an operation and 
prevent or favorably influence post operative collapse but care should 
be used not to overdo it. 

Saline by Hypodermoclysis and Per Rectum. Saline may 



GLYCERYL TRINITRATE — NITROGLYCERIN 105 

be administered per rectum or by hypodermoclysis in case of col- 
lapse after hemorrhage, when it is desired to promote kidney activity. 
The absorption from the rectum is especially rapid following 
hemorrhage and considerable may be given by enema without expul- 
sion. Under ordinary conditions hot saline solutions by rectum 
regularly show a prompt effect upon the kidneys. Considerable 
amounts may be absorbed within a short time from hypodermoclysis 
over the abdomen, in the axillary region and places where the skin is 
loose. 

Contraindications. Any kind of edema. 

Toxicology. Chills have been reported following saline infu- 
sions in human. Concentrated salt solutions are very dangerous. 

4. VASO DILATORS 

The most important members of this group are the nitrites of 
amyl, ethyl and sodium, and the organic nitrites which liberate 
nitrites in the blood, nitroglycerin, erythrol, tetranitrite and manitol. 
The alkaline nitrates have no effect upon the blood pressure, but 
potassium nitrate forms nitrite when burned, although it does not do 
so in the body. 

AMYLIS NITRIS — AMYL NITRITE 

Dose. Horse and Cattle, ir^x — lx: 0.6— 4. Do°- mi 

v; 0.065— .325. J 

This is an unstable volatile liquid with banana-like etherial odor. 
It decomposes slowly when exposed to the air. On account of its 
characteristics it is marketed in amber glass ampules, each con- 
taining two, three, four or five minims. The drug is administered 
by inhalation. An ampule is broken in a handkerchief or piece of 
gauze when desired for use. 

SODII NITRIS — SODIUM NITRITE 

Lose. H. gr. x— lx; 0.6—4. D. gr. ss— v; 0.03—0.3. 
This is a non-volatile, non-explosive, deliquescent salt which is 
freely soluble m water. On account of its affinity for oxygen it 
gradually oxidizes to nitrate in the presence of air and loses its effi- 
ciency, so that it is uncertain in action. 

GLYCERYL TRINITRATE — NITROGLYCERIN 

Synonyms. Trinitrin or Glonoin 
This is the volatile highly explosive liquid used in the manufac- 
ture oi dynamite, but it is decomposed and rendered non-explosive 
by strong alkalies. 



106 VASOCONSTRICTORS 

Dose. H. gr. %— %; 0.013—0.03. D. gr. Jioo— %o 5 
0.0006—0.001. 

It is official as Spiritus Glycerylis Nitratis (Spirit of Glonoin), 
Spirit of Nitroglycerin, a 1 per cent, solution by weight. 

Dose. H. oss— ij ; 2—8. D. TQ. j— iij ; 0.05—0.2 mil. 

Erythrol Tetranitrite is a slightly volatile solid, insoluble in 
water and very explosive. 

Dose. D. gr. %—j ■ 0.01—0.05. 

Spiritus iEtheris Nitrosi, Sweet Spirits of Nitre, is a 4 per 

cent, by weight, alcoholic solution of Ethyl Nitrite. It is too mild 
to be used as a general arterial dilator but is used in colds and slight 
fevers as a diuretic. 

Potassii Nitras, potassium nitrate (Kalium nitrate, nitre, salt- 
peter) is a constituent of gun powder, but is non-explosive. It is 
used in human practice for its nitrite action, by burning unsized 
paper impregnated with it, to relax the spasmodically contracted 
bronchial muscles in asthma. 

Action Circulatory System. 

Arteries. These are dilated by direct depression of the arterial 
muscles, as is shown by the fact that the flow of fluid will increase 




Fig. 14. — Blood Pressure tracing. Horse. Effect of Nitroglycerin upon blood 
pressure. (Tracing made by Dr. P. A. Fish.) 

greatly when a nitrite is added to the perfusing fluid, and since, if 
the experiment is so carried out that the blood from the carotid will 
reach the medullary centers, but is prevented from getting into the 
general circulation, the injection of a nitrite into the carotid does not 
cause a fall in blood pressure. It is, therefore, believed that the 
centers are not involved. On the other hand, it is not known just 
how much of the action is due to the effect upon the nerves and 
muscles but the dilatation takes place in the pulmonary arteries which 
have no vasomotor nerves, so it is generally believed that the action 
of the nitrites is due to direct depression of the arterial muscles and 
they are, therefore, considered as true arterial dilators. 



GLYCERYL TRINITRATE — NITROGLYCERIN 107 

The arteries of the splanchnic area appear to be most affected by 
nitrites but the dilatation is also pronounced in the arteries of the 
extremities and in the cerebral, coronary and pulmonary arteries. 
The veins are also somewhat relaxed, but this is not important. 

Heart. The heart's action is accelerated on account of depres- 
sion of the vagus. That the depression is due to this action is shown 
by the fact that if the vagus endings are first paralyzed by atropine, 
there is no additional increased rate of the organ. But, there is still 
some controversy whether the depression of the vagus is due to direct 
action upon the vagus center, or whether it is the regular reflex de- 
pression which accompanies lowered arterial pressure. 

Summary. 

1. Depression of the arterial muscles resulting in dilatation of 
their arteries. 2. Increased rate of the heart. 3. Perhaps some 
increased tone and strength of the heart. 

Blood. When mixed with a nitrite the oxyhemoglobin of the 
blood is converted into methemoglobin. This compound is more 
stable than the oxyhemoglobin and cannot serve as a carrier of oxy- 
gen, but harmful effects rarely follow the administration of medicinal 
doses. The nitrites differ somewhat from the other methemoglobin 
formers in that they do not destroy the red corpuscles and after a 
time the methemoglobin is reduced in the tissues to oxyhemoglobin. 
If present in the blood in large amounts, methemoglobin causes dysp- 
nea and cyanosis ; but if placed under a jar containing oxygen under 
pressure, animals usually recover from this poisoning by the ni- 
trites. 

Respiratory System. The respirations are quickened and 
deepened but this is probably due to changes in the circulation {in- 
creased supply of carbon dioxide to the medullary centers). From 
very large doses there is later a depression of the center and asphyxia. 

Nervous System. There is no direct action upon the brain but 
the cerebral arteries are dilated along with the others, and on account 
of this or the rapid fall of pressure, there may be dizziness and 
momentary throbbing of the head and faintness. The respiratory 
center is stimulated, the vagus center depressed. 

Muscles. Other forms of plain muscles (ureters, bronchioles 
and intestines) are relaxed, but not to the same extent as are those 
of the blood vessels. With the exception of the heart, striated 
muscle is not affected. 

Temperature. This may be lowered on account of dilatation oi 
the vessels of the skin and increased secretion of sweat but this 
action is not marked. 

Excretion. Excretion of the nitrites is largely by the kidneys 
as the nitrates but any increase in the secretion of urine is secondary 
to the action of the drug upon the circulation and depends upon the 
relative dilatation of the renal arterioles and those of the general cir- 



108 VASODILATORS 

dilation. If those of the kidneys are relatively more dilated, 
diuresis takes place. 

Differences in Members and Administration. The members 
of this group differ mainly in rapidity and persistence of action. 
Amyl nitrite, inhaled, is the most rapid and least persistent. It will 
produce action in from 10 to 15 seconds which will last about 3 
minutes. Nitroglycerin may be given per os or hypodermically and 
is almost immediately absorbed. The fall in blood pressure starts in 
Y2 to 3 minutes, reaches the maximum in 5 to 15 minutes, and dis- 
appears in Y2 to 1 hour. Sodium nitrite is to be given per os and 
is less rapidly absorbed. Its action starts in from 5 to 30 minutes, 
reaches its maximum in 20 to 80 minutes and is completely over in 

1 to 2 hours. Erythrol tetranitrite is also given per os. Its action 
is still slower. The fall in pressure begins in from 5 to 30 minutes, 
reaches its maximum in from V2 to 2 hours later and disappears in 
from 2 to 5 hours. 

Mannitol has about the same action as erythrol. 

Therapeutics. The nitrites are used almost entirely to relax 
constricted arteries and bronchi. The uses may be summarized as 
follows : 

1. To relieve excessive resistance to the work of the heart, as in 
arteriosclerosis. 

2. Antispasmodic: Inhalations of amyl nitrite may be of ser- 
vice in the spasms of epilepsy, tetanus and strychnine poison and 
to relieve asthmatic seizures in the dog. 

3. They have some indication to lower blood pressure in hemor- 
rhage, although one would expect to counteract any beneficial action 
by dilatation of the bleeding vessels. 

4. In toxic rise of blood pressure; poisoning from digitalis, 
strychnine, barium and in lead colic. 

5. As a diuretic and diaphoretic in colds and mild fevers, Spirits 
of nitrous ether. 

6. Amyl nitrite may be useful to overcome chloroform poisoning 
on the theory that it overcomes resistance and saves an exceedingly 
weak heart. According to Muhlberg and Kramer, it is effective in 
preventing the stoppage of the heart in the first and second stages 
of chloroform and ether anesthesia, although chloroform containing 

2 per cent, of amyl nitrite is more toxic than when used alone. 

The second and fourth uses are the only ones of importance in 
veterinary medicine. 

3? Spiritus Glycerylis Nitratis ^l xv 

Glycerini 3 ijss 

Aqua? Destillatas 3 iij 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. Teaspoonful three times daily for a dog with pulmonary 
emphysema. 



DECREASING THE VOLUME OF BLOOD 109 

MEASURES FOR DECREASING THE VOLUME OF BLOOD. 
VENESECTION, PHLEBOTOMY, BLEEDING 

Bleeding is one of the oldest therapeutic measures and was fre- 
quently employed in the older systems of medicine, but has been 
almost discarded. A careful examination of its former uses has 
shown that in most of these it was not only useless but in many cases 
decidedly harmful, particularly so in its use in febrile and inflam- 
matory conditions in general. On the other hand, there are some 
cases in horse and cattle practice in which it may be of decided 
benefit. 

Venesection is the process of removing blood by opening a vein. 
The jugular vein is the one most used in large animal practice, but in 
the days when bleeding was the regular custom it was a common 
practice to bleed from the palatine veins and arteries, although only 
comparatively small amounts of blood were drawn from these 
sources. The usual method of bleeding was to raise the jugular with 
the linger or tourniquet, and then open it with a bistury or phleme 
and allow the desired quantity to escape. The bleeding was then 
stopped by a skin suture or pin suture through the skin retained by 
a figure eight string or horse hair. See works on surgery. 

The most marked effect upon the body of the removal of large 
amounts of blood (5 to 10 quarts in horses and cattle) is the with- 
drawal of a large amount of water, which agrees very closely to the 
effects of diaphoretics, diuretics, sialogogues and laxative drugs. 
Following this, there is a tendency for the blood to regain its normal 
volume as quickly as possible by taking up the fluids at its disposal, 
lymph, fluid exudates, causing a temporary hydremia. This action 
is the basis for the principal use of blood letting. Blood pressure 
also usually falls. In addition to the above, there is a derivation of 
the blood from the internal organs, and the more rapidly the blood 
is withdrawn from the veins the more promptly this action occurs. 

The General Uses of Blood-Letting* Are: 

1. In conditions of high blood pressure. 

a. In inflammation of the brain ; in the early stages so long as 
the symptoms of cerebral congestion are pronounced, such as, conges- 
tion of the visible mucous membranes of the head, increased temper- 
ature of the cranium, strong pulsation of the arteries of the head and 
symptoms of excitement. 

b. Laminitis. According to Frohner, free bleeding as early as 
possible, together with the use of arecoline is the best treatment for 
this disease. 

c. High blood pressure of eclampsia and uremia in human medi- 
cine. 

2. In conditions of venous engorgement with heart weakness, es- 
pecially in edema of the lungs. 



110 VASODILATORS 

3. To remove poisons, carbon monoxide, toxins, etc. It is of 
very doubtful value in removing poisons since Levin, experimenting 
with artificially introduced toxins, met with negative results. In 
carbon monoxide poisoning, blood-letting is a good procedure, pro- 
vided it is followed by transfusion of blood, because the poison is in 
the circulating blood. 

4. It has also been recommended as a curative measure in azo- 
turia and as a prophylactic agent against parturient apoplexy of cat- 
tle. It is also used in some sections in the beginning of fattening 
animals. 

Venesection for the relief of marked local congestions was at one 
time a favorite practice in human medicine, but not in veterinary 
medicine. It was carried out by wet and dry cupping and leeches. 

In wet cupping a few small incisions were made close together in 
the skin and a cup was applied over them. The suction was obtained 
either by exhausting the air in the cup with a pump or by burning a 
small amount of alcohol in it before it was applied. Only a small 
amount of blood was obtained by this method. 

In dry cupping the same method was pursued, with the excep- 
tion that no incisions were made and consequently only edema or 
local congestion resulted. 

Leeches are small animals (Hirudo). They were placed upon 
the desired part of the skin and allowed to remove a small amount 
of blood. 



CHAPTER IX 
ANTIPYRETICS OR FEBRIFUGES 

These are agents used to reduce the temperature of the body in 
fever, but most of them will not reduce a normal temperature. The 
constant temperature of warm blooded animals depends upon a proper 
balance between heat production and heat dissipation. Heat is 
largely produced in the muscles and glands, and is largely lost 
through the lungs, feces, urine, etc. The normal balance is main- 
tained by the heat regulating mechanism. 

The circulation is an important factor both in heat production 
and heat loss, since the vessels of the skin not only form a cooling 
apparatus for the dissipation of heat produced in other parts of the 
body (radiation) but also lessen its production in the following man- 
ner: When the vessels of the skin are dilated, the blood not only 
flows through them much more quickly and is cooled, but being with- 
drawn from the muscles and glands, their activity is reduced and 
consequently less heat is produced. The opposite is also true when 
the cutaneous vessels are contracted. Since the condition of the ves- 
sels is regulated by the vasomotor center, drugs acting upon it may 
greatly modify body temperature. 

This group known as antipyretics will include only those 
drugs whose most prominent action is to reduce temperature in 
fevers. It does not include aconite, digitalis, alcohol, camphor, etc., 
which have the power to lessen fever, but have at the same time more 
important actions which have led to their grouping elsewhere. 

For convenience of study, antipyretics may be divided into three 
therapeutic groups: the quinine (or antimalarial group of human 
medicine), the coal tar or analgesic, and the salicylates or anti- 
rheumatic. 

CINCHONA 

Synonym. Peruvian Bark. 

Two varieties of Cinchona are official, Cinchona (yellow cin- 
chona) and Cinchona Rubra (red cinchona). They are the dried 
barks of certain species of cinchona yielding 5 per cent, of the 
alkaloids of the respective variety. The fluidextract and tincture 
are made from cinchona and the compound tincture from the red 
variety. 

Active Principles. Cinchona contains some eighteen or nine- 
teen alkaloids, the four principal ones being quinine, quinidine, cin- 

111 



112 ANTIPYRETICS 

chonine, cinchonidine ; and its action is based principally upon that 
of quinine. The action of the other alkaloids is similar to quinine 
but weaker. Quinine may be obtained in any of the following salts : 

Quininse sulphas, soluble in 720 parts of water, in 86 of alcohol, 
freely soluble in dilute mineral acids as it here forms the double 
salts; bisulphate, etc. 

Quininse Bisulphas, soluble in 8.5 parts of water and 18 of alcohol. 

Quininse Bromidum, soluble in 40 parts of water and 0.67 of 
alcohol. 

Quininse Chloridum, soluble in 18 parts of water and 0.6 of 
alcohol. 

Quininse Salicylicum, soluble in 77 parts of water and 11 of 
alcohol. 

Cinchoninse Sulphas, soluble in 58 parts of water and 72 of 
alcohol. 

Quininse et Urese Hydrochloridum is a double salt, soluble in 
its own weight of water and suitable for hypodermic use. It is 
anesthetic and non-irritating, but not stable in solutions. 

Euquinine (Quinine-ethyl-carbonic-ester) is insoluble in water 
and therefore not bitter. It is also said to be followed by less dis- 
agreeable effects. Its dose is about twice that of quinine, but it is 
not used to any extent in veterinary medicine. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Cinclionce and Bark, Astringents. H. 5ijss 

— vj; 10—25. D. 3ss— j; 2—5. 
Extractum Cinclionce. H. 3ss — ij ; 2 — 8. D. grs. v — xxx ; 

0.3—2. 
Tinctura Cinclionce 20 per cent. D. 3ss — ij ; 2 — 4. 
Tinctura Cinclionce Composita (10 per cent, with orange 

peel and serpentaria). Dose, double the tincture. 
Quinince Sulphas Tonic. H. grs. v — xxx; 0.3 — 2. D. grs. 

j — ij ; 0.065 — .130. Antipyretic. H. 3ij — viij ; 8. — 

30. D. G. grs. iij— xv; 0.2—1. 
Quininw et Urew Hydrochloridum. Quinine and urea hydro- 
chloride. D. gr. ij — xv ; .013 — 1. Hypodermically in 

a few drops of water. 

Tinctura Antiperiodica. N. F. Warburg's Tincture. Ac- 
cording to Bastedo, this is a bitter, aromatic, laxative, sedative and 
antimalarial " gunshot " prescription. It contains quinine sulphate, 
aloes, rhubarb, angelica seed, elecampane, saffron, fennel, prepared 
chalk, gentian, cubebs, myrrh, white agaric, opium, black pepper, 
ginger, alcohol and water. Each ounce contains 10 grains (0.63) of 
quinine, 8 grains (0.5) of extract of aloes, and % grain (0.008) of 
opium. Dose for the dog would be about 1 dram. Warburg's tinc- 
ture without aloes (sine aloe) is the same with the omission of the 



CINCHONA AND QUININE 113 

aloes. It can also be obtained in pill form for both preparations, 
each pill representing one dram of the corresponding tincture, Pilu- 
lse Antiperiodica, N. F. 

Local Action. Quinine is quite a powerful antiseptic. A solu- 
tion of 1 — 500 destroys many forms of micro-organisms, and a solu- 
tion of 1 — 250 prevents fermentation and putrefication. 

It is very toxic to the lower forms of animal and vegetable life. 
In dilute solutions the tendency is to irritate or stimulate protoplasm 
but this is soon followed by depression, and in motile organisms, as 
protozoa, ameba, etc., all motion is soon stopped, while strong solu- 
tions instantly stop the movements and kill them. It has no action 
when applied to the unbroken skin, but is irritant to raw surfaces, 
causes considerable pain when given hypodermically and often 
causes abscess formation. 

Digestive System. In small doses it resembles the vegetable 
bitters. The secretions from the salivary and gastric glands and the 
blood supply to the stomach and intestines are increased. There is 
some belief that it also increases peristalsis and on account of the 
a bove actions it has been commonly used as a bitter to increase the 
appetite and digestion. Large doses are irritant to the digestive 
tract, causing nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. 

Circulatory System. Small or medicinal doses may increase 
the force and frequency of the heart's beat but it is not used for 
this purpose. Large doses depress the heart, while toxic doses para- 
lyze that organ and arrest it in diastole. Small doses slightly raise 
blood pressure, and larger ones lower it. 

Blood. Quinine arrests the ameboid movements of the leuco- 
cytes and prevents their migration in inflammatory conditions. Even 
when the inflammation has begun, strong solutions of quinine stop 
the transmigration of the leucocytes and their gathering to form pus 
at the site of inflammation, and although such large doses cannot be 
used in practice, some influence is shown, for their number may be 
strongly reduced. The polymorphonuclear variety is much more re- 
duced than the others. Roth found a temporary increase in the 
lymphocytes which after several hours changed to" a decrease. The 
coagulability of the blood is decreased. Large doses lessen the num- 
ber of red cells while therapeutic doses increase the number and per 
cent, of these cells. These diminish in size in febrile conditions 
but under the influence of quinine and other antipyretics regain their 
normal condition. It is believed that quinine also impairs the 
oxygen carrying power of the red blood cells and the ozonizing power 
of the blood. 

Nervous System. Small doses stimulate the cerebrum, while 
large doses cause cerebral congestion with a sense of fullness of the 
head in man. The reflex function of the spinal cord is reduced by 
small doses and abolished by- toxic ones. The muscles are unin- 



114 ANTIPYRETICS 

fluenced, though if applied locally it is an irritant and may cause 
contraction. 

Peripheral Nerves. A slow prolonged anesthesia follows the 
hypodermic injection of quinine and urea hydrochloride at the site 
of injection. 

Respiratory System. Small doses have no influence upon res- 
pirations, but large or toxic doses paralyze the respiratory center. 

Temperature. In health there is no effect upon the tempera- 
ture but in febrile conditions it is an antipyretic. This action is 
due almost entirely to diminished production of heat and, since it 
lowers temperature after division of the spinal cord, it does not 
exert this action through the heat regulating center. Its action as an 
antipyretic can be further explained as due to : 

1. Antiseptic action. There is some belief that it overcomes the 
infection which is the cause of the fever, and consequently the fever 
is reduced. 

2. Lessened reflex excitability. 

3. Diminished oxidation. 

Uterus. It is believed by some to be an abortifacient although 
there is little direct proof of this action. There are indications, 
however, that it may be of some use in labor after this has started 
but the contractions are not tetanic as in case of ergot and pituitary 
extract. 

Kidneys, Metabolism, Elimination. Quinine lessens the se- 
cretion of uric acid and to some extent that of urea. It is chiefly 
eliminated by the kidneys but is more or less unabsorbed and passes 
out with the feces. Slight amounts are also eliminated by the bile, 
tears, saliva and milk. 

Upon the Plasmodium of Malaria. Quinine is a specific 
poison for this organism. 

Cinchonism. In man a condition is sometimes seen after re- 
peated doses or large doses, which is known as cinchonism. This 
is manifested by eruption of the skin, itching, disturbance of vision, 
impairment of hearing and a sense of fullness of the head. It is 
treated with potassium bromides or hydrobromic acid. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Locally. Quinine and urea hydrochloride in solution have 
come into extensive use as a local anesthetic. Hertzler, Brewster 
and Rogers consider it suitable for all operations in man that can 
be done under cocaine. They use a 0.25 per cent, solution in normal 
saline, and have determined that stronger solutions retard healing. 
Some operators use solutions of 1 to 3 per cent. In order to lessen 
the liability to shock in human work, Crile uses it in major opera- 
tions, to anesthetize the field of operation before cutting, to cut off 
all afferent impulses. The bisulphate of quinine has also been used 
as a local anesthetic. 



CINCHONA AND QUININE 115 

2. For Oxyures or Pin Worms. A /4ooo to %oo of the bisul- 
phate or a 0.5 per cent, solution of quinine and urea hydrochloride 
have been used with some success as a rectal injection for these 
parasites. 

3. Antiseptic for Diseases of the Eye. A 1 to 2 per cent, solu- 
tion of quinine sulphate is serviceable for suppurating conjunctivitis, 
keratitis and ulcer of the cornea. 

Internally. 

1. Bitter. One of the preparations of the crude drug is generally 
superior to the alkaloids as a bitter. The compound tincture is often 
preferred. Bastedo does not class quinine or cinchona as a true 
tonic since it has a tendency to retard absorption, inhibits proteolytic 
enzymes, irritates the stomach and does not have any good effect 
upon muscle. 

2. Antipyretic. Quinine is inferior to acetanilid and the newer 
antipyretics as a febrifuge against high and continued fevers. Ac- 
cording to Frohner, it does not have a pronounced action upon the 
typical infectious diseases like influenza and brustseuche (contagious 
pleuro pneumonia) of horses and distemper of dogs. He says that 
he has given 100 grams in two days to a horse with influenza with 
no results. But he believes it somewhat better for fevers caused by 
infection like septicemia and pyemia, although in the light of present 
day knowledge it would seem to be liable to do more harm than good 
by checking phagocytosis and depressing vitality. 

3. Antimalarial. Although quinine has a specific action for the 
malaria parasite of man, it has not proved of much service in mala- 
rial-like conditions of animals (horse and cattle malaria of Italy), 
nor in Texas fever and trypanasomiasis. 

4. Analgesic and Antipyretic in Colds. According to some au- 
thorities, quinine may be abortifacient if administered in full doses 
at the onset of inflammations of the respiratory tract and in colds 
but later in the disease it is without benefit until the convalescent 
stage is reached when it may serve as a bitter. 

5. Pneumonia. Solis-Cohen in human practice used 15 grains 
of quinine and urea hydrochloride hypodermically every 2 to 3 hours 
for 3 or 4 doses and claims that fever disappears by lysis instead of 
crisis, but this has not been confirmed by practitioners of veterinary 
medicine. 

COAL TAR OR ANALGESIC GROUP OF ANTIPYRETICS 

This group comprises : 

Acetanilid Exalgin 

Phenacetin Lactophenin 

Antipyrine Salipyrine 



116 ANTIPYRETICS 



ACETANILIDUM ACETANILID 

Synonyms. Antifebrin, phenyl-acetanide 
Acetanilid is prepared by the action of glacial acetic acid upon 
analine, an atom of H in aniline being replaced by an acid radicle. 
It occurs as a shining white powder or light shiny scales, soluble in 
180 parts of water, freely soluble in alcohol (2.5 parts). 
Preparations and Doses. 





Single doses 


Daily doses 


Horses and cattle 


5 iv — viij ; 15 — 30. 


q jss — iv; 45. — 120. 


Sheep 


5 ij — iv ; 8 — 15. 


oiv— 5J; 15.— 30. 


Dogs 


gr. iv — xv ; 0.25 — 1. 


gr. viij — xxx ; 0.5 — %, 


Cats 


gr. ij— v; 0.1—0.25. 


gr. iv — xv ; 0.25 — 1. 



Pulvis Acetanilidum Compositus Compound acetanilid powder, 
acetanilid 7, caffeine 1. Sodium bicarbonate 2. 

Incompatibles. Incompatible with caustic soda and potash, 
and chloroform. 

External and Local Action. Acetanilid is an antiseptic, as- 
tringent and hemostatic. 

Digestive System. There is no important action upon this 
system. 

Circulatory System. This drug has been claimed as a cardiac 
depressant in man because a few cases of collapse have fol]owed 
its use, but ordinary doses in experimental animals have no marked 
effect upon the circulation. In fact, small doses may slightly quicken 



Acetanilid, 
NaHCOa... 

Acetanilid. .|3&£3 
Acetanilid, 
caffeine, 

Naiico, ... mesa 



Acetanilid, 
caffeine . . . 



Fig. 15. — Toxicity of acetanilid increased by caffeine, decreased by sodium bi- 
carbonate. Experiments on mice by Worth Hale. The degree of toxicity is 
represented by the length of the bars. 

(Reproduced, bv permission, from Bastedo. Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 
Published by W. B. Saunders Co.) 

the heart and strengthen the beat due to a direct action upon the 
cardiac muscle, but in large doses the heart muscle is weakened, 
slowed and irregular, causing collapse. The collapse action, how- 
ever, is not marked and when it follows moderate doses should be 
attributed to an idiosyncrasy. Caffeine has been added to acetanilid 
in the hope of overcoming the depressant action upon the heart but 
Worth Hale has shown that acetanilid is more toxic when adminis- 
tered with caffeine but less toxic when siven with sodium bicarbonate. 



ACETAXILID AND ANTIPYRINE 117 

The skin vessels are dilated in fever probably through action on 
the heat regulating center. 

Nervous System. Acetanilid is a powerful analgesic, and a 
slight sedative to the nerves and cord. Small doses are slightly 
stimulant to the brain, larger ones may be sedative and tend to 
produce drowsiness. Large or toxic doses may excite convulsions 
which appear to be of spinal origin in some cases, of cerebral origin 
in others. 

Temperature. In health single or moderate doses do not have 
any influence upon temperature, but in fever acetanilid is a very 
strong antipyretic. Its antipyretic action is due almost entirely 
to action upon the heat regulating center. It does not in any 
way reduce heat production because it does not reduce metabolism. 
It is believed that it aids the heat regulating center to improve 
its control over the mechanisms of heat dissipation, which are the 
ones at fault in ^ infectious fevers. This central action is shown 
by the fact that it does not lower normal temperature, if the cord 
is divided, and by the fact that there is no effort made by the 
organism to produce more heat, shivering, etc., as when the tem- 
perature is lowered by cold applications. The reduction of tempera- 
ture may be accompanied by sweating but this is of central origin 
and temperature will still be lowered if the sweating is prevented 
by atropine. Its effects are usually produced promptly and last for 
several hours. 

Absorption, Elimination and Metabolism. It is absorbed 
rapidly and soon excreted as oxidized products. It is a feeble diu- 
retic, increases urea and uric acid, and renders the urine darker in 

color. 

Therapeutics. 

1. In fevers to reduce the temperature when dangerously high 
and to promote the comfort of the animal by lessening pain. 

2. Analgesic. It is especially valuable for the relief of the " so- 
called " functional pains in man, neuralgias, etc., but is less im- 
portant to veterinarians for this purpose although Quitman gives 
acetanilid analgesic properties in horses. 

3. Laminitis. It has been reported as very successful in the 
German army for the treatment of this disease. In this case large 
doses (3iv— viij) are given three or four times daily. 

_ 4. Externally. As a dusting powder for wounds, galls, etc., 
either alone or in combination with boric acid, talcum, etc. 

ANTIPYRINA. ANTIPYRINE 

Synonym. Analgesin 
This is also a coal tar product. It is obtained by the action of 
phenyl hydrazine upon diacetic ether and then methylating the re- 



118 ANTIPYRETICS 

suiting monoethyl compound. It occurs as fine crystalline scales, 
odorless and of a bitter taste. It is freely soluble in water, alcohol 
and chloroform. 

Doses. H. oij — vj ; 8 — 24. D. grs. iv — lx ; 0.25 — 4. 

ACETPHENETIDINUM 

Synonym. Phenacetin 

For some years this preparation was proprietary as phenacetin 
but in the 8th revision of the Pharmacopoeia it was made official under 
the above name. It is obtained by the action of paraphenetidin, 
a coal tar derivative, upon glacial acetic acid, in which an atom of 
hydrogen in the paraphenetidin is replaced with the acetic acid 
radicle, acetyl. It occurs in colorless, odorless, tasteless scales, soluble 
in 12 parts of alcohol, in 925 parts of water and in glycerin. 

Doses. H. Too expensive for large animals. D. gr. ij — 
xxx ; .13—2. 

In the main these drugs act similarly to acetanilid. Acetanilid 
is probably the most depressant to the heart and therefore most liable 
to cause collapse and phenacetin the least. Phenacetin is probably 
the least toxic. Antipyrine is a better hemostatic than acetanilid or 
phenacetin. Both of the above drugs are much more expensive than 
acetanilid and therefore of little use in veterinary medicine since 
acetanilid is relatively safe for the lower animals, and consequently 
the newer preparations have little advantage over it. 

Therapeutics. In general these drugs are used for the same 
conditions as mentioned under acetanilid. Antipyrine, in addition, 
has a weak cocaine-like action in 25 per cent, solution when applied 
to mucous membranes, causing a vaso-constriction with shrinkage of 
the tissues and thus checking small hemorrhages and lessening pain. 

SALXPYRINA — SALIPYRINE 

This is a combination of antipyrine and salicylic acid and is 
therefore valuable as an antirheumatic and antipyretic. It may be 
substituted for either of its constituents or for a combination of the 
two. 

OTHER MEMBERS OF THE GROUP 

Exalgine resembles acetanilid except in its greater insolubility 
in water and may be given in the same quantity. Chemically it is 
methyl-acetanilid. It occurs as white crystals, soluble in alcohol, 
sparingly soluble in water. It has an acetanilid-like action as an 
analgesic but is not to be used as an antipyretic according to Hare. 

Phenalgin (phenolated acetanilid). A white powder of slight 



SALICYLIC ACID 119 

pungent odor, no pronounced taste and nearly insoluble in water. 
Uses the same as acetanilid. 

Lactophenin (lactyl-para-phenetidin) differs chemically from 
phenacetin only in having lactic acid in place of the acetic acid con- 
stituent. It is an antipyretic and analgesic. 

Migranum is a mixture consisting, according to an analysis made 
at the chemical laboratory of the American Medical Association, of 
antipyrine, caffeine, and citric acid. 

Anilipyrine is made by melting together 376 parts of antipyrine 
and 135 parts of acetanilid. It is antiseptic and analgesic. 

Iodophenin or iodophenacetin results from the precipitation of 
a solution of phenacetin in hydrochloric acid with potassium iodide : 
brown powder containing about 50 per cent, of iodine, insoluble in 
water, soluble in alcohol. Used as a wound dressing and antirheu- 
matic. 

Iodopyrin (iodoantipyrine) antipyrine iodide, colorless crystals, 
soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in water. Analgesic and alterative 
in tuberculosis, neuralgia, etc. 

Apolysin is a substance closely related to phenacetin, a citro- 
paraphenetidin or monocitryl-paraphenetidin. White powder, of 
faint odor and acidulous taste, moderately soluble in water, more 
freely so in alcohol or glycerin. Used as an antipyretic and analgesic. 
It is claimed to be comparatively nontoxic and noncumulative. 

Thermodin is phenacetin-urethane. It consists of colorless, 
odorless and tasteless crystals, soluble in 2600 parts of water and is 
used as antipyretic and analgesic the same as acetanilid. 

Neurodin is the trade name for acetyl-para-oxyphenyl-urethane. 
It occurs as colorless, odorless crystals, slightly soluble in water. 
Antineuralgic and antipyretic. 

GROUP OF THE SALICYLATES OR ANTIRHEUMATIC 
ANTIPYRETICS 

ACIDUM SALICYLICUM — SALICYLIC ACID 

Salicylic acid is chemically ortho-salicylic acid. It is an organic 
acid which exists naturally in the volatile oils of wintergreen and 
birch but is generally prepared synthetically from phenol. The 
synthetic acid has been found contaminated with meta and para 
salicylic acids and with cresotonic acid, which are said to be depress- 
ing to the circulation, but the commercial acid of the present time is 
fairly pure and the reported superiority of the natural product is not 
substantiated as shown by Eggleston, Hatcher and others. Further- 
more, Engelhardt found phenol present in a number of samples of 
both the artificial and the natural acids. 

Salicylic acid occurs as small, white needle-like crystals, or a light 
crystalline powder, odorless, with a sweetish, afterward acrid burning 



120 ANTIPYRETICS 

taste. One gram dissolves in 460 mils of water and 2.7 mils of 
alcohol. It is freely soluble in ether. It is also much more soluble 
in solutions of neutral salts, such as the borates and citrates, than in 
wate*\ 

Preparations and Doses. 

Single doses Daily doses 

H. 5ii — 5Jss; 8. — 45. ^iijss — 100. 

C. 5ii— §ij ; 8.— 60. §vj— 150. 

D. grs. iij — xv ; .2 — 1. 3iij — 2.8 
Cat. grs. jss — iij ; 0.1 — 0.2. gr. viij — .51 

There are also the alkaline salts of sodium, lithium, strontium 
and magnesium with an action similar to that of the acid. Sodii 
Salicyclas — Sodium Salicylate — is most frequently used. The 
dose of the salts is twice that of the acid. 

The salts of ammonium, quinine, bismuth and physostigmine are 
also official but in the available dose do not produce a salicylate-like 
action. 

Incompatibles. It is incompatible with mineral acids, alkalies 
and metallic salts. 

External and Local Action. On microorganisms: Solutions 
of 1 — 500 are antiseptic and will therefore inhibit or check the 
growth of bacteria, moulds and yeasts. These solutions are not 
corrosive to protoplasm or poisonous to animals and except in large 
amounts are safe to use in and upon the body. It is not a popular- 
antiseptic, largely on account of its insolubility, but is largely used 
in the treatment of skin diseases and for the preservation of food. 
It belongs to the phenol group of antiseptics but differs from phenol 
in not having the destructive and penetrating properties of that agent 
and in retaining its antiseptic properties in alcoholic and fatty prepa- 
rations. The alkaline salts have some antiseptic action, though less 
than the acid, and are soluble in water. Their use, however, as anti- 
septics is mostly confined to the preservation of foods. Salicylic acid 
is also a parasiticide and antiferment. 

Salicylic acid is irritant to mucous membranes, softens the epi- 
dermis as in the removal of corns without exciting inflammatory 
changes beneath and promotes the healthy growth of skin in chronic 
skin diseases. Solutions of the acid check perspiration through 
external application. In addition to the above action the oils of 
wintergreen and birch are counterirritants. 

Digestive Tract. Even small doses tend to delay digestion by 
inhibiting or diminishing the action of the digestive enzymes. A 
1 per cent, solution is sufficient to check the action of ptyalin on 
starch. Pepsin is also somewhat retarded and it is believed that the 
other secretions are acted upon in a similar manner. Salicylic acid 
is a distinct irritant to the mucosa of the stomach and frequently 



SALICYLIC ACID 121 

causes nausea and vomiting in those animals capable of vomiting and 
on this account the sodium salt is most often used because it is less 
irritating to the stomach. The acid has some reputation as an anti- 
septic upon the contents of the stomach but there is much doubt 
concerning its effect upon the number of bacteria. The volatile oils 
are carminative. 

Circulatory System. Small doses may slightly raise blood 
pressure, according to some authorities, by some probable constriction 
of the deep vessels by central action. The peripheral vessels are 
dilated. Larger doses are said to make the heart beat faster and 
stronger and raise blood pressure but toxic doses finally lower blood 
pressure. The migration of the leucocytes is restrained or checked 
but their number is increased. 

Nervous System. There is very little action upon the nervous 
system. It is an analgesic like acetanilid but very much weaker. 
Toxic doses cause cerebral congestion and lessen reflex action but the 
method of action is unknown. 

Respiratory System. There is no important action upon this 
system. Small doses stimulate, quicken and deepen the respirations 
through action upon the respiratory center and pulmonary vagi. 
Toxic doses paralyze the respiratory center and cause death by 
asphyxia. 

Temperature. There is no effect upon the temperature of 
healthy animals through medicinal doses, but in febrile conditions 
the temperature will be lowered in a short time and remain down 
for several hours. Heat production is lessened and heat loss is in- 
creased. 

Absorption and Elimination. The acid is not absorbed from 
the unbroken skin. It is converted into the sodium salt in the stomach 
and absorbed as such from the stomach and intestines. It is elimi- 
nated by most secretions but chiefly by the kidneys as salicyluric acid, 
although a part is eliminated unchanged. It is eliminated to some 
extent through the bile, milk, sweat and inflammatory exudates. 
Elimination is slow and on this account large doses taken continu- 
ously may be cumulative. 

Urine. The total amount of urine is increased together with 
uric acid and urea. 

Therapeutics. 

Externally. 1. The acid may be used as a surgical antiseptic, 
in the form of a dusting powder, alcoholic solution or ointment. 

2. To soften and remove callosities and warts, corns, etc., upon 
which it may be applied either as an ointment or in solution. 

3. As a parasiticide for various fungus skin diseases, either in 
alcoholic solution or an ointment. 

4. In human practice in an alcoholic solution to check excessive 
sweating of the hands and feet. 



122 ANTIPYRETICS 

Internally. 1. As a specific for acute muscular or articular 
rheumatism. Here oue of the salicylates is to be preferred. They 
lessen pain and swelling, lessen the danger of cardiac complications, 
and shorten the attack. The manner of action of the salicylates in 
these conditions is not well understood, but it is believed or suspected, 
at least, that they have a specific action against the infective agent. 
Fair sized doses should be given every two or three hours until im- 
provement is seen and then less often. The salicylates have little 
influence upon chronic rheumatism except to check acute attacks of 
the disease. 

2. Salicylic acid or the salicylate of sodium is often of consid- 
erable service to check excessive fermentation in the digestive tract, 
especially in gastric fermentation of the horse. The acid is usually 
preferred for this purpose and is given in capsule in 4 to 6 dram 
doses. -i 

3. Antipyretics. These agents have been used as antipyretics 
but they do not compare very favorably with those of the previous 
group. 

For Acute Moist Eczema. 

R Acidi Salicylici. 

Acidi Tannici ' aa 5. 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 100. 

M. Ft. Sol. Apply to affected parts. 

R Acidi Salicylici gr. xv 

Zinci Oxidi. 

Amyli aa 3 ii 

Petrolati q. s ad. 3 i 

M. Ft. Pasta. 

For ring worms, etc. 



PHENYLIS SALICYLAS — PHENYL SALICYLATE 

Synonym. Salol 

Phenyl salicylate is composed of 60 parts of salicylic acid and 40 
parts of phenol. It is a white powder, of aromatic odor and taste, 
sparingly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, ether and oils. 

Doses. H. 3ij— viij ; 8—30. D. gr. ij— xv; 0.13—1. 
Daily doses, gr. xv — lx; 1 — 4. 

External and Local Action. This resembles the other salicy- 
lates and in addition is somewhat of a deodorant. 

Digestive System. Salol is insoluble in the gastric juice and 
consequently passes into the intestines unchanged, where it is broken 
up by the alkaline pancreatic juice into its constituents, which are 



ASPIRIN — NOVASPIRIN 123 

easily absorbed. Furthermore, it is a non-irritating intestinal anti- 
septic. On account of its insolubility in the gastric juice salol is often 
used as a coating for pills which are intended for action upon the 
intestines. Poisoning takes place after large doses from the freed 
phenol. 

Circulatory System. It is not so depressing as salicylic acid. 

Absorption and Elimination. This is similar to that of the 
salicylates in general. Salol renders the urine aseptic and for this 
reason is used in inflammation of the bladder. It also renders the 
urine acid and causes the sediment to disappear. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Fermentations of the digestive tract. 

2. As an intestinal antiseptic. Salol is very serviceable in all 
those cases needing an intestinal antiseptic, such as intestinal catarrh, 
distemper of dogs, etc. It is too expensive for large animals. 

3. Rheumatism. Salol may be useful in this disease, although its 
action is less prompt than the salicylate of soda. 

4. Antipyretic. It is inferior to the coal tar antipyretics but 
may be used for this action. 

Other members of the salicylate group. 

ASPIRIN — ACETYL SALICYLIC ACID 

This differs from salol only in having an acetyl instead of a 
phenol radicle. It occurs as a white crystalline powder, soluble in 
100 parts of water and 5 parts of alcohol. As in the case of salol it 
passes through the stomach unchanged, but undergoes dissociation 
in the intestines, liberating salicylic acid, but some may be absorbed 
unchanged and exhibit a more pronounced salicylate action than salol. 
It is used as an antirheumatic, intestinal antiseptic and analgesic in 
functional pains, headache, etc., in human medicine. 

Novaspirin is the methyl-citric-ester of salicylic acid. It occurs 
as a white, odorless powder, of acidulous taste, is almost insoluble in 
water, freely soluble in alcohol. It contains 62 per cent, of salicylic 
acid and is intended as a substitute for the salicylates in various 
conditions. 

Diaspirin is the succinic acid ester of salicylic acid, occurring 
as an odorless, almost tasteless, crystalline powder very sparingly 
soluble in the ordinary fluids but slowly decomposing in alkaline 
liquids. Used largely as aspirin but is more strongly diaphoretic. 

Salicin is a glucoside obtained from the bark of the willow and 
poplar. It is bitter but not nauseating. In the stomach or duo- 
denum it splits into salicyl alcohol and other close allies of salicylic 
acid. Its action is quite similar to those of the other salicylates but 



124 ANTIPYRETICS 

milder. Its uses are confined to the milder rheumatic manifesta- 
tions, or in conditions of the stomach where the ordinary salicylates 
cannot be administered. 

Saliphen (salicyl-paraphenetidin) occurs as colorless crystals 
readily soluble in alcohol and almost insoluble in water, is a mild 
analgesic and antipyretic. 

Salophen (acet-amido-salol.) It is a white, odorless, tasteless 
powder, soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water, contains 51 per cent, 
of salicylic acid and is decomposed by alkalies. It is an anodyne, 
antiseptic, antipyretic and antirheumatic. Used externally in 10 per 
cent, ointment. 

Atophan is chemically phenyl-quinolin-carboxylic acid. Ato- 
phan stimulates the kidneys, increases the amount of urine and 
furthermore has a specific or selective action by which it increases 
the amount of uric acid excreted to a greater ratio than the increase 
in the amount of urine. It is claimed to have a more prompt and 
stronger effect on the excretion of uric acid than sodium salicylate. 
It is useful in gout of man, in which it acts more promptly than 
colchicum. 

Doses. Dog. grs. vijss — xv; 0.5 — 1.0, three or four times 
daily. 

Novatophan is a similar product but is almost tasteless. Neither 
of these agents is used to any extent in veterinary medicine. 

Malakin is salicyl-para-phenetidin. It is a condensation product 
of salicylic aldehyde in para-phenetidin ; occurs as fine yellow needles, 
insoluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, but freely soluble in 
solutions of alkali carbonates. It is an antipyretic, antineuralgic and 
tsenifuge. Dose. Dog. 15 grains, several times daily. 

Mesotan is methyl-oxymethyl-ester of salicylic acid which occurs 
as a clear yellow fluid, of aromatic odor, miscible with alcohol, ether, 
chloroform and fatty oils. It possesses the qualities of a volatile 
oil and is for external use. It is more irritant than methyl salicy- 
late, so is diluted with an equal amount of olive oil. 

Spirosal is monoglycol salicylate. It occurs as a nearly colorless, 
odorless, oily fluid, soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform and 
miscible with fats. It is used as the preceding drug, either in 
alcoholic or oily solution or as an ointment (50 per cent.). 

Phenocol is most often used as the hydrochloride (amido-acet- 
para-phenetidin). It occurs as a white, crystalline powder, of bitter 
sweetish taste, soluble in water and alcohol. Used as an antipyretic 
and antimalarial. 

Saloquinine is salicyl-quinine, occurs as a whitish, tasteless 
powder insoluble in water, soluble in acidulated water, chloroform 
and hot alcohol, sparingly soluble in cold alcohol and ether. It is an 
analgesic, antiperiodic, and antipyretic, analogous to quinine. 



METHYL SALICYLATE 125 



METHYLIS SALICYLAS — METHYL SALICYLATE 

Synonyms. Oil of Wintergreen (Gaultheria), Oil of Sweet 
Birch (Betula) 

Methyl Salicylate is prepared either by the distillation of the 
above named plants or is made synthetically. The U. S. P. requires 
that the label must indicate how it has been made. Its actions and 
uses are similar to the other salicylates with the exception that it may 
be used as a carminative and counterirritant. 



CHAPTEE X 
DRUGS AFFECTING CHIEFLY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

These agents may be classified as : 

1. Those acting upon the central nervous system. 

A. Those stimulating. 

B. Those depressing. 

2. Those acting upon the peripheral nervous system. 

A. Those stimulating. 

B. Those depressing. 

DRUGS ACTING UPON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

A. STIMULANTS TO THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Those agents which stimulate the central nervous system are : 
Caffeine, strychnine, atropine and cocaine. Caffeine and nux 
vomica or strychnine are the most important. 

CAFFEINE GROUP 

Caffeine is an alkaloid obtained from the coffee plant, Coffea ara- 
bica, or from damaged tea leaves, Thea sinensis. It is found in 
plants in widely separated parts of the world and which have no close 
botanical relationship. The Arabians and Egyptians used the 
roasted seeds of Coffea arabica; the Western Africans, the seeds of 
kola nuts ; the natives of the Amazon region, guar ana made by pound- 
ing the seeds, Paullinia Cupana, into a paste and drying this by 
heat ; the Chinese and Japanese fermented tea leaves. In Paraguay 
and Uraguay, " mate " or Paraguay tea, the dried leaves and shoots 
of a species of ilex or holly were used ; in North America, Appalach 
tea ilex cassine. The Mexicans and West Indians made a beverage 
from the fermented seeds of the chocolate plant which contain a 
similar alkaloid, theobromine. 

Tea contains about 1 — 4 per cent., coffee 0.6 — 2 per cent., kola 
nuts 1 — 2 per cent., Mate 1 — 3 per cent, and guarana 3 — 6 per cent. 
That obtained from tea was formerly called theine. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Caff etna, caffeine is a white powder. One gram dissolves in 16 
mils of water and 66 mils of alcohol. 

Doses. H. gr. xv — xxx; 1. — 2. D. a;r. j — vij ; 0.06 — 0.5. 

126 



CAFFEINE 127 

Caffeina Citrata, citrated caffeine is a mixture of caffeine and 
citric acid. It gives a clear syrupy solution with a small quantity of 
water but caffeine precipitates on dilution, then redissolves on further 
dilution. 

Doses. About twice those of caffeine. It is not suitable for 
hypodermic administration. 

Caffeina Citrata Effervescens, effervescent caffeine citrate is an 
effervescent preparation. It is not used to any extent in veterinary 
medicine. The doses would be about the same as for citrated caf- 
feine. 

Caffeina? Sodio-Benzoata, Caffeine-Sodium-Benzoate is a mixture 
of caffeine and sodium benzoate. It contains when dried to constant 
weight not less than 46 nor more than 50 per cent, of anhydrous 
caffeine, the remainder being sodium benzoate. It occurs as a white 
odorless powder with a slightly bitter taste. One gram dissolves in 
1.1 mils of water; some caffeine separates on standing and in 30 mils 
of alcohol. It may be used hypodermically. 

Doses. II. 5j— ijss; 4— 10. D. grs. jss— xxx; 0.1— 2. 

Caffeina? Sodio-Salicylas X. F. contains about 60 per cent, of 
caffeine. The doses are the same as for the preceding salt. It may 
also be used subcutaneously. 

Action, Digestive System. Caffeine slightly stimulates peris- 
talsis, increases the appetite in man, is a mild chologogue and laxa- 
tive but is not used for these actions. 

Circulatory System. The characteristic actions of therapeutic 
doses of caffeine are to accelerate the heart, increase its force and 
raise blood pressure. The increased rate and force are due to direct 
action on the cardiac muscle, while the blood pressure is raised on 
account of the increased efficiency of the heart and constriction of the 
blood-vessels through stimulation of the vasomotor centei\ On the 
other hand, in some cases the rate of the heart is diminished and 
blood pressure lowered on account of a tendency to stimulate the in- 
hibitory center in the medulla and dilatation of some of the peri- 
pheral vessels through action upon the plain muscle of their walls. 
After very large or 'toxic doses, the heart beats so rapidly that the 
ventricles do not have time to fill, delirium cordis takes place and the 
organ stops in diastole. 

■ Respiratory system. Caffeine stimulates the respiratory center 
and increases both the number and depth of the respirations. _ 

Nervous System. Caffeine is a true central nervous stimulant. 
In man the psychic functions are first stimulated, then the motor 
area is excited as is shown by restlessness, excitement and increase of 
movements. Finally the cord is stimulated as is shown by convul- 
sions. The action upon the brain is shown in animals by increased 



128 STIMULANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

movements and excitement. The medullary centers are excited, 
causing a stimulation of the respirations and a general vasoconstric- 
tion. The cardio-inhibitory center is probably also stimulated, but 
this is of but little importance because the peripheral action of caf- 
feine on cardiac muscle so overshadows its action on the center. The 
action upon the cord and medulla is quite similar to that of strychnine 
but weaker. There is the same increased reflex excitability fol- 
lowed by tremors and tetanus but this action follows only large doses. 

Muscles. Caffeine increases the contractility of all forms of 
muscle. Small doses increase the contractility, strength and power 
for work of all muscles. After large doses the muscles become ex- 
hausted, hard, and pass into a rigor that closely resembles rigor 
mortis. 

Kidneys. Caffeine is a decided diuretic. The water of the 
urine is increased to a greater extent than the solids, so that it is low 
in specific gravity, yet the total amount of solids eliminated is not 
diminished. It is generally believed that caffeine and its allies 
stimulate the tubules of the kidneys to an increased action and that 
its diuretic action is independent of the circulation. But there is 
another theory that caffeine dilates the vessels of the kidneys and 
produces diuresis in this manner. Whether the dilatation of the 
vessels is the cause of the increased secretion or the result of kidney 
activity cannot be definitely stated. At any rate caffeine and its 
allies act in a specific manner on the kidneys and do not cause irri- 
tation. 

Metabolism. Caffeine is believed to increase metabolism. It 
raises temperature slightly, due no doubt to stimulation of the central 
nervous system and on account of increased movements. 

Absorption and Elimination. Caffeine is rapidly absorbed 
and is chiefly eliminated by the kidneys. Some of the drug is ex- 
creted unchanged, some is changed into other compounds, but the 
fate of the greater part is unknown. 

Therapeutics. Caffeine is not an important remedy in veter- 
inary medicine. It may be used as a cardiac stimulant and tonic 
although it is not so efficient in valvular insufficiency as digitalis. 
When marked dropsy is present a combination of digitalis and 
caffeine may be of more service than either alone. 

Diuretic. Since caffeine is a nonirritating diuretic it may be 
used in nephritis. 

Narcotic Poisoning. Caffeine is often serviceable in cases of 
narcotic poisoning on account of its stimulating action on the heart, 
respirations and brain. Strong coffee may be used in emergency. 



NUX VOMICA — STRYCHNINE 129 

STIMULANTS TO THE SPINAL CORD — EXCITOMOTORS 

These drugs increase the functional activity of the spinal cord, 
exaggerate reflex activity and in large doses produce tetanic convul- 
sions by stimulating the cell bodies of the lower motor neurons. 
Whether the convulsions are of spinal or cerebral origin can be proven 
by division of the cord between the atlas and occiput. Those of cere- 
bral origin cease after such a division, while those of spinal origin 
do not. The most important members of the group are : 

Strychnine Caffeine 

Brucine Ammonium salts 

Hydrastis Phenol 

Of these only the first two are of importance from their thera- 
peutic effect. 

NUX VOMICA, NUX VOMICA 

Synonyms. Dog Button, Quaker Button, Poison Nut 

Parts Used. The dried ripe seeds of Strychnos nux vomica, a 
small tree of the East Indies and yielding when assayed not less than 
2.5 per cent of the alkaloids of nux vomica. 

Constituents. It contains two alkaloids, Strychnine (strych- 
nina) and Brucine (brucina). The former is in excess, is the 
principal one and represents quite accurately the action of the crude 
drug. 

Preparations and Doses. All are assayed. 

Fluidextractum Nucis Vomica?. 2.5 per cent, of alkaloids. 

H. 3ss— ij ; 2—8. D. n\ ss— ij ; .033— .13. 
Nucis Vomica?. Same as fluidextract. 
Extractum Nucis Vomica?. 16 per cent, of alkaloids of 

nux vomica. H. grs. vij — xv; 0.5 — 1. D. grs. % — /i ; 

.008— .016. 
Tinctura Nucis Vomica?. 0.1 per cent, of strychnine. 2.5 

per cent, of alkaloids. H. ov — ijss; 1.25 — T5. D. TTL 

v— xx ; .032—1.3. 

Strychnine is official as strychnine (strychnina) and the follow- 
ing salts : Nitrate soluble in 42 parts of water and in 150 of alcohol, 
and the sulphate soluble in 32 parts of water and 81 of alcohol. The 
sulphate contains 77 per cent, of pure strychnine and the nitrate 84 
per cent. 

Dose of Strychnine and, -Us salts. Horse and Cow. gr. 34 — ■ 
ij; .016—0.13. Dogs. 1 / 2 oo— 1 Ao; 0.00032—0.0016. 
Cats, ^oo— %s; 0.00032— 0.001. 



130 STIMULANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Preparations of Strychnine. 

1 Citrate of iron, and strychnine, 1 per cent. Dose. D. gr. ss — ij. 

1 Elixir of the phosphates of iron, quinine and strychnine. 1 dr. 
(4 mils) = /<35 grain (0.001 gm.) strychnine and Vis grain quinine. 

1 Syrup of the phosphates of iron, quinine and strychnine. 1 dr. 
(4 mils) = Yso gr. (0.0008 gm.) strychnine and 1% grains quinine. 

1 Glycerite of the phosphates of iron, quinine and strychnine. 
This is four times the strength of the syrup, for the preparation of 
which it is used. 

1 Compound syrup of the hypophosphites, 2 drams (8 mils) con- 
tains /4o grain (0.001 gm.) of strychnine and %5 grain of quinine. 

1 Compound laxative pills, aloin % gr., extract belladonna % 
grain, ipecac M.6 grain, strychnine (the alkaloid) %20 grain (0.0005 
gm.). 

External and Local Action. Strychnine is an antiseptic in 
strong solution but is too dangerous to use. 

Digestive System. Strychnine or mix vomica is an excellent 
stomachic tonic, improving the appetite and aiding digestion. 
Strychnine reflexly stimulates the flow of saliva and gastric juice by 
acting as a bitter. It increases peristalsis by imparting tone to the 
muscles of the intestines by action through the cord and consequently 
relieves constipation due to lack of tone. For the action upon diges- 
tion some preparation of the crude drug should be used, partly be- 
cause it is not absorbed so rapidly and partly because it may contain 
other valuable bitter principles. It is usually combined with mild 
purgatives for its action on peristalsis. 

Nervous System. 

1, Cerebrum. There is a slight stimulation of the intellect and 
of the motor areas, but strychnine is not a pronounced intellectual 
stimulant. The special senses are all stimulated. Consciousness is 
retained until asphyxia coma sets in. 

2. Spinal cord. The first symptom of the use of the drug is an 
increase in the spinal reflexes. Even slight stimulation under the 
influence of strychnine is sufficient to throw the whole body into a 
clonic convulsion which is characterized by sudden contractions of 
all striped muscles of the body, lasting for a few seconds or minutes 
and followed by complete relaxation, with all signs of paralysis. 
After a brief interval, the spasms are repeated and again followed 
by paralysis. They may be started by any external stimuli, such 
as touching the animal, clapping hands, talking, etc. That the con- 
vulsions are of spinal origin can be demonstrated by the elimination 
of other factors which might cause convulsions. The cord has no 
power, under the influence of strychnine, to originate new impulses 
but intensifies the ordinary impulses by facilitating their passage 
through the sensory paths, so that slight stimulation leads to exagger- 

1 Unofficial. 




Fig. 16. — Strychnine sulphate, 0.2 mg. per kilo, no effect on circulatory organs. 
Upper tracing, auricle; middle, ventricle; lower, blood-pressure; upper line of 
figures, pulse-rate. (Tracing made by Dr. C. C. Lieb.) 

(Reproduced, by permission, from Bastedo. Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Thera- 
peutics. Published by W. B. Saunders Co.) 



NUX VOMICA — STRYCHNINE 131 

ated motor response. Strychnine tetanus should be conceived as 
caused by the extensive spreading of reflexes on the application of 
normal stimuli. This spreading is not normally present except 
after the strongest stimuli. 

Medullary centers. The centers in the medulla are first stimu- 
lated, then depressed and finally paralyzed. This paralysis may be 
obscured for a short time by the convulsions, but shows in the inter- 
missions between the convulsions in the later stages of poisoning; 
and is the usual cause of death, unless the animal dies during a 
respiratory spasm from asphyxia. Those factors concerned in the 
death of the animal usually fail in the following order: Respira- 
tory center, vasomotor center, vagus center and cardiac muscle. 

Respiratory System. The respiratory center is stimulated 
both directly and indirectly by increased muscular effort causing the 
respirations to be quickened and deepened, while large or toxic doses 
quickly exhaust the center. Death takes place from asphyxia, due 
either to tetanic contraction of the respiratory muscles during a con- 
vulsion, or to exhaustion of the center between the convulsions. 

Circulatory System. Medicinal doses raise blood pressure and 
slightly slow the heart. The former is due to vasoconstriction by 
stimulation of the vasomotor center and the latter, to stimulation of 
the vagus center. Frequently no result is seen. There is no action 
on the heart in therapeutic doses, probably not in toxic ones, and 
strychnine is not a cardiac stimulant in the truest sense of the word. 
Clinicians, however, quite generally assert that it is a cardiac stimu- 
lant. This does not necessarily mean that it has any direct action 
on the heart but that the pulse is improved. The improvement in 
the condition of the pulse is probably due to an increased blood 
pressure. Toxic doses at first cause a great increase in blood pres- 
sure due to stimulation of the vasomotor center, but this stimulation 
is followed by depression and the pressure falls. 

Special Senses. All the special senses appear more sensitive 
under influence of strychnine. Vision, hearing, and sound seem to 
be more acute. 

Muscle. The tone of all muscle is improved. There is no 
direct action upon muscle, but there may be increased muscular 
power, resulting from an increased reflex excitability together with 
improvement of tone. 

Absorption and Elimination. Strychnine is rapidly absorbed 
especially from the intestines and begins to be eliminated quite 
quickly by the kidneys. Some is oxidized in the body and the re- 
mainder is excreted in the urine. It can be found in the urine 
within a few minutes after administration and most is excreted in a 
few hours, although traces may be present for four or five days. 
Cumulative action may take place if the drug is pushed to its limit 
for some time, but is of rare occurrence. In strychnine poisoning, 



132 STIMULANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

the urine after concentration by boiling will produce characteristic 
convulsions if injected into a frog. 

Temperature. The temperature is slightly raised by therapeu- 
tic doses on account of increased oxidation. During the tetanic con- 
vulsions it is much elevated but falls in the exhaustive or paralytic 
stage just before death. 

Toxicology. The early symptoms of strychnine poisoning are 
uneasiness, nervousness, restlessness, anxiety, twitching of the mus- 
cles and stiffness of the neck. If the dose is sufficiently large the 
twitching increases and spinal convulsions quickly appear. The 
body is thrown in orthotonus or opisthotonus. The convulsions are 
usually intermittent with a period of depression but can be excited 
by the slightest external stimuli such as talking, touching, clapping 
the hands, etc. The pupils are dilated, the mind clear and the 
animal suffers severe pain. In fatal cases the convulsions follow 
each other rapidly with increasing severity and finally death takes 
place from asphyxia, spasm of the respiratory muscles, exhaustion, 
or paralysis of the medullary centers. Very large doses may kill 
by paralysis of the central nervous system or motor nerve end- 
ings. 

Diagnosis of Strychnine Poisoning. From tetanus by ab- 
sence of history of a wound or presence of a wound, intermittent 
character of convulsions, late involvement of the muscles of the jaw, 
and rapid course. 

From eclampsia of nursing bitches. In eclampsia the reflex ex- 
citability is not increased. 

Treatment. 1. Keep the animal and surroundings as quiet as 
possible, as very slight stimuli will cause convulsions. 

2. Use emetics or stomach tube if convulsions have not already 
appeared. If they have started these should not be attempted as 
convulsions will be caused by their administration. In this case, 
control the convulsions first with chloroform, chloral, amyl nitrite, 
paraldehyde, etc. 

3. The chemical antidotes are tannic acid and potassium per- 
manganate, but these should be washed out of the stomach as soon 
as the condition of the patient permits. 

4. The physiological antidotes are chloroform, ether, chloral 
hydrate, paraldehyde. For quick action chloroform or ether can 
be given by inhalation (by artificial respiration if necessary). 
Chloroform may be used to check the spasm but should then be re- 
placed by ether to hold the condition. When the convulsions have 
been controlled, chloral hydrate or paraldehyde may be given per 
rectum. The bromides, in large doses, are recommended in human 
practice for lasting effect. Morphine should not be used because it 
not only fails to antagonize strychnine on the cord, but is at the same 
time depressant to the respiratory center. 



HYDRASTIS 133 

Therapeutics. 

1. Stimulant to digestive apparatus and general tonic. The 
tonic effect of the drug may be explained in two ways. A. By in- 
creasing the muscular tone, which in turn produces a more healthy 
feeling in the animal. B. Its effect upon the digestive tract^ im- 
proves digestion and increases the appetite. It is especially 
valuable to stimulate the digestion, increase the appetite and stimu- 
late peristalsis in acute diseases. Combined with iron and arsenic 
it is one of the most satisfactory tonics for veterinary patients, par- 
ticularly when the digestive system is deranged. It is especially 
valuable in atonic forms of indigestion and constipation associated 
with anemia. It is also valuable in overloaded rumen of cattle, and 
impacted large intestines of horses. The best results in these cases 
are probably obtained by its hypodermic use along with a rapid pur- 
gative. Constipation and diarrhea are benefited when either is due 
to atony of the bowels. 

2. As an excitomotor, it is the best ageut for paralysis due to 
depression or exhaustion of the nervous mechanism but is absolutely 
valueless in cases due to organic lesions, or in other words in cases 
where there is a complete destruction of the nerve elements. That is, 
it is especially useful in functional disorders or lowered activity of 
the cord which follow as sequellse of other diseases, such as influenza 
of horses or distemper of dogs. In mild cases of chorea in dogs it 
may be combined with Fowler's Solution of Arsenic. Strychnine is 
also useful in paralysis following lead poisoning, or toxemia, or in 
cases of paralysis of peripheral nerves (facial, superscapular) from 
traumatism, but should not be used until inflammation has subsided. 

3. Respiratory Stimulant. Since strychnine is a circulatory as 
well as repiratory stimulant it is indicated in diseases of the respira- 
tory tract associated with weak pulse and feeble respiration, such 
as pneumonia, emphysema, and some cases of chronic bronchitis. It 
is also useful in cases of poisoning by depressant drugs such as 
opium, chloroform, etc. In these cases it should be given subcutan- 
eously in full doses. 

4. Circulatory Stimulant. It" is inferior to digitalis in simple 
dilatation of the heart with or without valvular disease but^may be 
useful combined with it. It is of much value in pneumonia as an 
adjuvant to digitalis and alcohol. It is useful in surgical shock and 
is superior in the weak heart of the aged. 

HYDRASTIS 

Synonym. Golden Seal 

Parts Used. The dried roots and rhizomes of Hydrastis Cana- 
denis, yielding when assayed not less than 2.5 per cent, of Hydras- 
tine. 



134 STIMULANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Constituents. Hydrastis contains hydrastine, colorless and 
slightly bitter, berberine, yellow and very bitter; canadin in small 
amounts and hydrastinine, an artificial alkaloid having a marked 
effect upon blood pressure. The action of the drug is represented 
by hydrastine. Berberine is but a simple bitter in ordinary doses 
but depresses the vasomotor center in large doses and lowers blood 
pressure. Canadin has a morphine-like action but exists in too 
small amounts to be of any therapeutic importance. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Tinctura Hydrastis. H. §j — ij ; 30 — 60. D. 3ss — ij ; 2 — 

8. 
Fluidextradum Hydrastis. H. 5ij — viij ; 8. — 30. D. Tl\ v 

— lx ; .032—4. 
*Fluid Hydrastis. For application only. 
Olyceritum Hydrastis. For application only. 100 per cent. 

Hydrastis. 
Hydrastine, a variable mixture. H. grs. xv — xxx ; 1. — 2. 

D. gr. V 5 — % ; 0.010—0.03. 



^ J 



Hydrastininw Hydrochloridium. H. gr. j — ij ; 0.065 — 0.13. 
D. gr. Y 12 — ft; 0.005—0.03. 

Externally and Locally. Hydrastis has a slight astringent 
action and is therefore employed as a stimulant to mucous mem- 
branes in chronic catarrhal conditions. 

Nervous System. Moderate doses resemble the action of 
strychnine in many respects, particularly upon the cord. The 
cord is stimulated, reflexes increased with tonic and clonic convul- 
sions, but the paralytic stage is more prominent. 

Digestive System. It has the action of a bitter upon the appe- 
tite. It stimulates the secretion and motion of the stomach and in- 
creases peristalsis in the intestines. Large doses produce vomiting 
and diarrhea. 

Respiratory System. In ordinary doses the respiratory cen- 
ter is stimulated; but in poisoning it is depressed, and death takes 
place from asphyxia due to paralysis of the respiratory center or to 
convulsions, very similar to the case in strychnine poisoning. 

Circulatory System. Large doses stimulate the vasomotor cen- 
ter, constrict the arterioles and raise blood pressure. This action 
is soon followed by a lowered blood pressure, due to depression of 
the above center and the heart. There is so much contradictory 
evidence relative to the action of the drug upon the circulation that 
it seems best to say that medicinal doses produce a short and weak 
rise in blood pressure if any at all, and that this is soon followed by 
a depression as explained above. 

Uterus. Hydrastine is a feeble oxytoxic, acting similarly to, 
but less active than, ergot. 



HYDRASTININE 135 

Toxicology. The symptoms are about the same as those in 
strychnine poisoning and the treatment the same as for strychnine. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Bitter stomachic in anorexia, convalescence or wherever a bit- 
ter is desired. 

2. Excitomotor. It is inferior to strychnine in every respect for 
action on the cord. 

3. Catarrhal conditions. There seems to be some good inflence 
in inflammations of the mucosa, especially that of the genito-urinary 
tract, although the manner of action is not known. The glycerite, 
fluid or hydrastine in solution are used for this purpose. 

HYDRASTININAE HYDROCHLORIDUM 
HYDRASTININE CHLORIDE 

Dose. See above. 

It is freely soluble in water and alcohol. Hydrastinine has the 
same action on the centers as hydrastine but in addition has a local 
constricting action on the arteries. Furthermore, it is depressant 
to the heart and other muscles. It produces a rise of blood pres- 
sure by stimulating the vasomotor center. It is used for its action 
upon the uterus, as it stops uterine hemorrhage by cutting down the 
blood supply through constriction of the arterioles, and to some 
slight extent by stimulating the uterus itself. A 10 per cent, solu- 
tion has been used in treating hemorrhage from the nose, mouth, etc. 

Cotarnin Chloride (Stypticin) is not official. Chemically it is 
oxymethyl hydrastine. 

Dose for dog, % grain. (0.03.) 

This is prepared from narcotine, and strongly resembles hydras- 
tinine, but with a hydrastine tendency to depress the heart. 

B. DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 
CEREBRAL DEPRESSANTS 

Cerebral depressants may be classified as hypnotics, general anes- 
thetics, general analgesics, and anticonvulsants. Hypnotics, somni- 
facients or soporifics are agents which produce sleep. If they de- 
press the psychic areas aside from their hypnotic effect they are 
termed narcotics. The following factors favor sleep: 

1. Removal of external stimuli. 

2. Fatigue of the brain cells, making them less responsive to ex- 
ternal influences. 

3. Accumulation o^ waste products in the blood which are given, 
off by the cells while producing energy. 



136 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

4. Lessening the blood supply to the brain. 

5. Depression of the brain cells by drugs. 

Somnifacients are of but little if any use in veterinary medi- 
cine as such, since we do not have to deal with insomnia of animals. 
They are valuable, however, to relieve pain, spasm, produce mild 
degree of anesthesia or dullness and for their other valuable side 
actions. 

General Anesthetics are drugs which when inhaled produce un- 
consciousness and insensibility. They have a more profound effect 
upon the brain than the hypnotics in that they temporarily inhibit 
the responsiveness of the cells to external stimuli and to a certain 
extent suspend their power to recuperate. On the other hand, the 
somnifacients inhibit the functional activity of the brain cells but 
do not completely suspend their recuperative powers (the main 
object of sleep) nor the power to react to external stimuli. 

General Analgesics or Anodynes are agents or remedies which 
relieve pain. They are sometimes classified as a division of hyp- 
notics which are especially active in relieving pain. They may 
produce their action by directly depressing the receptive centers in 
the brain or by preventing the passage of painful impressions 
through the sensory nerves and spinal cord to the brain. 

Anticonvulsants are remedies which check excessive motor ac- 
tivities. In cerebral convulsions they may act 

(1) By directly depressing the cells of the cortex of the brain. 

(2) By preventing the transmission of external stimuli to the 
brain, through depressing the sensory side of the brain and spinal 
cord. 

(3) By preventing the transmission of painful impulses from 
the brain to the muscles, by depressing the motor side of the spinal 
cord and peripheral nerves. 

GROUP OF HYPNOTICS 

The most important members of this group in their order are : 



Opium 


Bromides 


Sulphonal 


Chloral Hydrate 


Chloretone 


Hedonal 


Cannabis 


TJrethane 


Veronal 


Hyoscine 


Paraldehyde 





OPIUM 

Opium is the concrete juice or milky exudate obtained by incis- 
ing the unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum, and yielding, in its 
normal moist condition, not less than 9.5 per cent, of anhydrous 
morphine. It is simply the dried milk-juice which exudes from en- 
circling incisions made in the green capsules of the common poppy 
plant of oriental countries. This plant is indigenous to Asia and 



OPIUM — MORPHINE 137 

has been cultivated in many other lands. The only opium meeting 
the U. S. P. requirements is that from Asia Minor, and known as 
Turkish or Smyrna opium. 

Constituents. Opium contains some eighteen or nineteen alka- 
loids together with meconic acid and meconin, a neutral principle. 
The most important alkaloids in order are: morphine, codeine, 
heroin (diacetyl morphine), dionin, thebaine, papaverine, narcotine, 
and narcine. Morphine is the most important and with few excep- 
tions represents the action of the crude drug. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Tinctura Opii {Laudanum), 10 per cent, opium, 1 per cent, 
morphine. H. §ss — ij ; 15. — 60. D. Vt\ iij — xx ; 0.2 — 
1.3. 

Tinctura Opii Campliorata. Paregoric (Camphorated tinc- 
ture of opium). 4 grams of powdered opium to 1000 
mils. Used for dogs only. D. 5ss — iv; 4. — 15. 

^Tinctura Opii Deodoraia, 10 per cent, of opium. Dose same 
as for tincture. 

Extractum Opii (20 per cent, morphine). H. oss — j ; 2. — 4. 
D. gr. Vs— y 2 ; 0.2—0.1. 

Opium (crude drug) 9.5 per cent, morphine. H. 5j — ij ; 4. 
—8. D. gr. Y 2 — iij ; 0.03—0.2. 

Powdered Opium (12 — 12.5 per cent, morphine). One- 
third less than of crude drug. 

Deodorized Opium. Same strength as the powdered drug, but 
with narcotine and certain disagreeable odorous principles 
removed by benzine. Doses. Same as for powdered 
drug. 

Pulvis Ipecacuanha? et Opii. Dover's powder. 10 per cent, 
of powdered opium and ipecac and 80 per cent, of sugar 
of milk. H. 5ss— j; 15.— 30. D. grs. iij— xv; 0.2—1. 

^Tincture of Ipecac and Opium, 10 per cent, of each. Dose. 
Same as for Dover's powder. 

*Lead and Opium wash (Lotio Plumbi et Opii 1ST. F.) is 
made by adding 35 mils of tincture of opium to 17.5 gms. 
of lead acetate dissolved in 650 mils of water and then 
adding enough water to make 1000 mils. 

Preparations of the alkaloids : 

MORPHINA — MORPHINE 

This may be purchased in several salts. Morphine and mor- 
phine acetate are not readily soluble in water, the hydrochloride is 
soluble in 17.5 parts of water and 52 parts of alcohol; and the sul- 
phate in 15.5 of water and 240 parts of alcohol. 

i Unofficial. 



138 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Doses. Horse, grs. ij — v; 0.13 — 0.3. Dog. gr. % — v; 
0.013—0.3. 

* Compound Morphine Powder (Tully Powder) contains 1.5 per 
cent, of morphine sulphate, with camphor, licorice and chalk. 

Magendie's Solution of Morphine, Liquor Morphinw Ilypoder- 
maticusy N. F. It is of the strength of 1 — 30, in distilled water, 
with the addition of a small amount of salicylic acid as a preserva- 
tive. Five minims of the solution contain % grain of the sulphate, 
or each mil contains about % grain. See prescriptions following 
page 147. This preparation slowly weakens and acquires a brown 
color. 

"Pantopon is said to contain the alkaloids of opium in the same 
proportion in which they exist in opium itself. The dose is twice 
that of morphine. 

*Pleistopon is a similar product with the narcotine removed. 

Opium and its alkaloids are incompatible with iron, mercury, 
zinc and the alkalies. 

External and Local Action. Morphine and opium have no 
local action. Their action to overcome pain is purely central and 
since they must be absorbed and reach the centers before they can 
check pain, they have no more power for tbis action when applied 
locally than when given by mouth. Furthermore, pain is relieved 
in distant parts of the body just as much as at the point of applica- 
tion. Hence, the use of opium or its preparations as dusting pow- 
ders, washes, suppositories, etc., is not only irrational but has the 
additional disadvantage of being uncertain of absorption. 

Digestive System. The principal actions of opium and mor- 
phine on the digestive tract are to diminish secretions and peris- 
talsis, cause nausea and vomiting. Nausea and vomiting almost 
invariably follow the use of morphine in any form in moderate or 
large doses in the dog and cat, and since this action is very quickly 
produced by subcutaneous injection it would appear to be of central 
action. Kiegel found in dog and man that the secretion of the 
gastric juice was first retarded but is subsequently increased beyond 
the normal. The effects in the intestines vary with the doses used 
and the species of animal. Small doses diminish peristalsis in all 
animals, but large ones produce active or violent peristalsis and 
frequent evacuation of the bowel in the dog and cat. The intestinal 
secretions are somewhat diminished but the constipation which fol- 
lows morphine and opium is largely due to the slow emptying of the 
stomach, together with the slow passage of the intestinal contents 
due to the lessened peristalsis. The total result of the diminished 
peristalsis and secretions is that digestion is delayed, appetite ap- 
peased and constipation almost always follows. 

* Unofficial. 



OPIUM — MORPHINE 139 

Circulatory System. There is practically no direct action on 
the circulation, although the heart may be accelerated for a short 
time by stimulation of the heart muscle or from the nausea pro- 
duced. Large doses slow the heart by stimulation of the vagus, but 
on account of the action upon the vasomotor center, blood pressure 
does not fall. There is no effect upon the peripheral vessels except 
those of the skin, which are dilated even by small doses. This is 
especially so of the vessels of the skin of the head and neck in man. 
The dilatation of the skin vessels gives a sense of warmth to the skin 
and causes an increase in the secretion of sweat. 

Toxic doses of opium produce a rapid weak pulse and depress 
all the functions so that the blood pressure falls ; the skin becomes 
pale, due to withdrawal of the blood to the splanchnic vessels, and on 
account of asphyxia from depressed respirations. 

Nervous System. In mammals opium produces depression of 
the voluntary movements and later an increase in the reflex irri- 
tability, but the relative importance of these two stages differs in 
the different species of animals and even in different individuals of 
the same species. For instance, in the members of the cat family 
and the horse, cow, sheep and pig, morphine rather seems to increase 
movement. The animals run about the room, or make circus move- 
ments and are very restless. At the same time there is a depression 
of the intelligence and of power of perception because they make no 
effort to escape and do not avoid obstacles so carefully as normal 
animals. Convulsions finally set in, similar to those in strychnine 
poisoning. On the other hand, the depressant action is more pro- 
nounced in the dog. After small or fair sized doses, these animals 
pass into sleep, from which they can be easily wakened at first, but 
this soon deepens so that it requires greater force to waken them. 
After being aroused, the dog appears to sleep less soundly, and less 
stimulation will awaken him if applied within a short time after- 
wards. During the awakening period the animal may appear to 
perform voluntary movements, but there is a lack of coordination, 
partial paralysis of the hind extremities and lack of consciousness. 
He is drowsy and stupid and soon sinks back into a deep sleep. The 
sensation of pain seems to be much diminished, but not entirely so, 
as the dog will often wake from severe sudden pain. The reflexes 
at this time are much depressed. " After larger doses," according 
to Cushny, " an exaggerated sensibility to external stimulation seems 
present, for the animal starts convulsively on loud sounds and on 
pinching, but when undisturbed lies in a profound sleep." 

The stage of strychnine like convulsions as mentioned in case of 
the cat is not seen in the dog after morphine, although the reflex irri- 
tability may be distinctly increased by large doses. 

From the above symptoms it would seem that the action upon 
the central nervous system consists of a mixture of stimulation 



140 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

and depression which is not equally marked, however, throughout 
the divisions of the central axis. Cushny says concerning this, 
" The depression seems to be produced mainly in the brain, espe- 
cially in those parts associated with the higher intellectual faculties, 
while the stimulation affects first the spinal cord. It seems likely 
that in different animals these two opposing influences prevail to 
varying extents, so that in some the stimulant action extends to 
the brain, as in the cat, while in man the depressant action domi- 
nates the whole central nervous system, at any rate when moderate 
quantities are used. The action on the brain is elicited by smaller 
quantities than that on the cord, so that the first effect of morphine 
is intellectual depression, while the increased activity of the spinal 
functions is only elicited by very large quantities. The selective 
action of morphine is especially evident in the medulla oblongata, 
in which certain centers are entirely paralyzed before neighboring 
ones undergo any distinct modification." 

The action of morphine has been studied almost entirely upon 
the frog and in this animal the reflexes are first diminished and 
then heightened as in case of strychnine poisoning. This action 
is seen to some extent in young animals (increased reflexes) but 
tetanic convulsions are not seen in mammals. There is no good 
theory to explain the action of the drug upon the different animals. 
Small doses usually cause drowsiness in horses but larger ones are 
liable to cause excitement. Opium and morphine are among the 
most powerful and reliable analgesics in man but cannot be de- 
pended upon for this action in the lower animals, with the exception 
of the dog. 

To sum up the action on the nervous system we would say that 
morphine depresses all the nerve cells in the brain, and very slightly 
the motor cells. In the cord there is at first a similar depression 
which may be followed by some hyper-excitability, as shown by 
twitching, tremors, etc. 

Peripheral Nerves. Morphine has no effect upon either the 
motor or sensory nerve endings so that its local use is irrational. 
It is frequently used to check cough and accomplishes this action 
by reducing reflex irritation or depression of the respiratory center. 

Secretions. The secretory glands, in general, appear to be 
less active under the influence of morphine. If nausea is caused, 
there is an increase in the secretion of saliva and mucus but this 
is due to the nausea and not to any direct influence upon the glands 
themselves. The sweat glands are exceptions to this general state- 
ment, for slight diaphoresis is usually seen from therapeutic doses. 
There is no influence upon the urine. 

Respiratory System. In most animals the respirations are 
depressed by therapeutic doses, due to depression of the respiratory 
center, but in the dog there may be panting in the early stages, 



OPIUM — MORPHINE 141 

probably due to the emetic and purgative action. The respirations 
are somewhat deeper than normal but they are so much slowed that 
there is a decrease in the amount of respired air per unit of time. 
In the later stages of poisoning, the respiration may become shal- 
lower and irregular. The irregularity may be intermittent, a series 
of deep inspirations being followed by a series of shallow ones, and 
then by complete suspension for a few seconds. The breathing then 
commences with slight movements, followed by a series of increasing 
regularity in strength and then again decreasing. (Cheyne- Stokes 
respiration.) In fatal cases, the respirations become slower, shal- 
lower and finally cease. 




Fig. 17. — Dog. Cheyne-Stokes respiration after a large dose of morphine. 

Down-stroke inspiration. 

Temperature. The temperature often falls slightly under 
the influence of morphine, due probably to less active movements 
and dilatation of the cutaneous glands and sweating. 

Eye. In man the pupils contract and in fatal cases so much 
so that there is the pin hole pupil until just before the final as- 
phyxia when it dilates widely. In the dog there is the same effect, 
but in animals in which there is increased movement and excite- 
ment the pupils are dilated. This action is probably central, since 
morphine does not cause this action from local application. 

Absorption and Elimination. Morphine and opium are 
rapidly absorbed. Morphine is excreted very largely by the diges- 
tive tract, in the saliva, stomach and bowels. It has been found in 
the mouth in two and one-half minutes after hypodermic injec- 
tions, and in the stomach in three minutes. In dogs about 30 per 
cent, of the hypodermic doses can be recovered from the stomach, 
a fact which shows the necessity of washing the stomach in cases 
of poisoning. From 30 per cent, to 40 per cent, more can be 
recovered from the feces. This makes it very evident that there must 
be a considerable amount of reabsorption and reexcretion of the 
drag in the digestive tract with the final destruction of the mor- 
phine or its evacuation with the feces. It is also eliminated to 
some extent by the sweat, urine and milk; and some authors say 
that sufficient is excreted by the last named channel to be dangerous 
to the young. 



142 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Metabolism. The excretion of carbonic acid is diminished 
during the depressant stage but in animals in which excitement is 
produced, it may be increased due to increased muscular move- 
ment. There may be an increase of lactic acid in the blood and 
urine and a disappearance of glycogen from the liver on account 
of the poor respiration. 

Treatment Of Poisoning. Evacuate the stomach with the 
stomach tube or stimulating emetics such as sulphate of zinc or 
copper, or mustard, but on account of the depressant action of the 
nervous system, emetics are uncertain and the stomach tube is to 
be preferred. The stomach should be evacuated at frequent inter- 
vals to remove the drug as it is excreted into this organ. Potassium 
permanganate should be administered at intervals to oxidize the 
drug for the same reason. The above measures hold good no mat- 
ter how the morphine may have been administered, as it is elimi- 
nated by the stomach in large amounts. Maintain the respiratory 
and circulatory systems with stimulants, of which caffeine appears 
to be one of the best. Atropine was considered at one time to be 
antidotal, but must be used in very small doses for this action 
because large doses are in themselves depressant to the respiratory 
center. They may, furthermore, cause serious constipation as men- 
tioned under discussion of the action upon the digestive tract. The 
animal should be kept awake by exercise, dashing of cold water upon 
it, etc. Artificial respiration should be used if the respirations cease 
before the heart stops beating. 

Contraindications. Young animals are quite susceptible to 
morphine and opium so that considerable care should be used in 
prescribing for them. Morphine is not indicated in respiratory 
diseases associated with excessive exudation, in cerebritis, high fever, 
or constipation. 

Therapeutics. Morphine and opium are used to relieve pain, 
overcome nervousness and excitability, lessen reflex excitability, 
diminish secretions, support the system and as diaphoretics. 

Pain. Opium is not of so much service to relieve pain and 
spasm in veterinary medicine as in human therapeutics because it 
cannot be relied upon in any animal except the dog. Small doses, 
however, are usually sedative to the horse so that the drug is 
especially indicated in strong persistent pain such as in enteritis. 
It may often be extremely useful in spasmodic colic and produces 
its action here by arresting the irregular and violent peristalsis 
which is the cause of the pain. It may be combined with small 
doses of atropine or belladonna for this purpose. 

To Check Peristalsis. Opium is very serviceable for this pur- 
pose in various intestinal troubles, especially acute intestinal 
catarrh and diarrhea. By checking both peristalsis and secretions, 
an opportunity is given for a chance of repair, and permanent cure. 



OPIUM — MORPHINE 143 

It is also very serviceable in peritonitis, both for its analgesic effect 
and because it checks peristalsis which causes the pain. Opium 
is preferable to morphine for this action because it lies longer in 
the bowel, and therefore evolves a stronger action there than on 
other parts of the body and also because the other alkaloids have 
some constipating effect. In septic diarrhea it is to be avoided. 
There are several popular remedies for this use upon the intestines, 
such as Sun Cholera Cure, Squibb' s Compound Tincture of Opium, 
p. 82. 

In perforation and bleeding from the bowels opium is the most 
efficient of all remedies, as it allows adhesions or clots to be formed 
by checking the movements of the intestines which would promote 
further leakage. 

Cough. Morphine and other members of this group depress the 
sensibility of the respiratory center to reflex irritation and con- 
sequently check cough. One of the members of this group is espe- 
cially valuable when the cough is not attended with free expectora- 
tion and is of sufficient frequency to prove distressing. But when 
the bronchial secretion is free, the cough is necessary to remove 
it and any interference with cough, results in an accumulation of 
fluid in the air passages, making the ultimate condition of the patient 
worse. 

As an Introduction to General Anesthesia in Dogs. If a dose 
of morphine is given to dogs a few minutes before the beginning 
of general anesthesia, it is found that the period of excitement is 
much diminished and that much less anesthetic will be required. 
Morphine is often combined with hyoscine or hyoscine and cactin 
for this purpose. In larger doses either morphine or one of the 
preceding combinations may prove sufficient as an hypnotic or 
anesthetic for these animals. See Morphine scopolamine anesthesia, 
p. 182. 

To Chech Distant Hemorrhages. This action is not due to 
any specific action of the drug upon the bleeding surface but entirely 
to the fact that it produces quietness, stops movements and in this 
way favors the formation of a clot. 

Diaphoretic. For this purpose opium is usually combined with 
ipecac and prescribed as Dover's powder. Although it has little 
diaphoretic action alone, it may enhance the diaphoretic action of 
ipecac by dilating the skin vessels. In the form of Dover's or 
Tully's powder, opium and morphine are frequently employed to 
produce sweating at the onset of colds, but they are not good 
diaphoretics. 

Diabetes. Morphine, opium and codeine have a special power 
to bring about a reduction of the sugar excretion. Von Noorden 
attributes this action to quiet of the body. 

Comparison of Opium and Morphine. In general the action 



144 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

of morphine represents the action of opium. Furthermore, it is 
suitable for hypodermic use and consequently of more value when 
rapid action is desired. Morphine is less liable to upset the diges- 
tion than opium, but it is less useful to reduce the amount of sugar 
in the urine in glycosuria. Opium is to be preferred for action 
upon the digestive tract. 

DIACETYLMORPHINA — DIACETYLMORPHINE 

Synonyms. Heroina, Heroin 

This is the diacetyl ester of morphine. Heroin is a proprie- 
tary preparation and much more expensive than the official drug. 
Diacetylmorphine occurs as a white, odorless, crystalline powder, 
slightly bitter and slightly alkaline in reaction. It is insoluble in 
water but soluble in acidulated water. The hydrochloride (diacetyl- 
morphine hydrochloridum) is soluble in alcohol and water. 

Doses of the Alkaloid or Its Salt. 

II. gr. Y2— ij; .032— .12. 

D. gr. y 2 +— 1 /i 2 ; .0026— .005. 

Diacetylmorphine is not so marked a hypnotic or analgesic as 
morphine but has a greater tendency to increase reflex excitability. 
Like morphine it depresses the respiratory center and has been 
considered by Dreser to have a more specific action in depressing 
this center to reflex stimuli, as in cough, than to direct stimulation 
as from carbon dioxide. He also stated that it slowed the respira- 
tions but increased the force and depth of the inspirations. There 
is, however, a considerable reduction in the amount of air respired 
per unit of time. On account of its action upon the respiratory 
tract, Dreser believed it particularly useful in cough, but Cushny 
has more recently found that heroin affects the respirations, in man 
at least, just the same as morphine does. It seems therefore that 
it has no advantage over the older drug. Another advantage claimed 
for it is that there is less danger of producing toxic action since 
there is a greater difference between therapeutic and toxic doses 
than in case of morphine, although the actual toxic dose is not much 
different from that of morphine. This is because the therapeutic 
dose is so correspondingly small. The hydrochloride of diacetyl- 
morphine may be given in pill, syrup, aqueous solution per os. or 
in aqueous solution hypodermically, but it is most often prescribed 
in a syrup, of which there are several upon the market. 

Its chief and only use is to check cough and most impartial 
investigators have generally failed to obtain any better results with 
it than from the older drugs, morphine and codeine, and it is prob- 
ably in no way superior to them. 



CODEINE — DIONIN 145 



CODEINA. CODEINE — METHYL MORPHINE 

One gram of codeine dissolves in 120 mils of water and 2 mils 
of alcohol. One gram of codeine phosphate dissolves in 2.3 mils of 
water and 325 mils of alcohol. Codeine sulphate is soluble in 30 
parts of water and 1280 of alcohol. Of the above preparations, the 
alkaloid, codeine, is the best for alcoholic solution and the- phosphate 
for aqueous solution or hypodermic use. 

Dose. II. and C. gr. iij — xxx; 0.2 — 2. D. gr. % — ij ; 
0.010—0.13. 

Codeine is the methyl ester of morphine or methyl morphine. 
As a hypnotic and an algesic codeine stands between morphine and 
heroine, being weaker than morphine but more powerful than heroin. 
It is sufficiently analgesic to give good results in some cases but 
is not much used for this action in veterinary medicine. It differs 
somewhat in its action upon the nervous system from morphine, in 
that it produces a slight but distinct narcosis, but the sleep is not 
so sound or so restful as under morphine, and is occasionally fol- 
lowed by restlessness and excitability. If the doses are large, the 
short depression gives way to excitement. Codeine is less liable 
to cause indigestion, nausea and constipation than morphine, and 
is claimed to be non-habit-forming in man although there are some 
cases of forming the habit on record. Since it relieves bronchial 
irritation, and checks the secretions, it is often useful in cough. 
For this purpose it is often combined with an expectorant (am- 
monium chloride) and phenacetin or acetanilid. 

^ITHYLMORPHINAE HYDROCHLORIDUM 

Synonyms. Dionin, Ethylmorphine Chloride 

Ethylmorphine occurs as a white powder soluble in water and 
alcohol. It is much less sedative than morphine but has been used 
to some extent in cough and mild pain. It is analgesic in the 
eye, and is quite extensively used by ophthalmologists in deep-seated 
ocular pain. Lloyd-Owen found that there was little or no effect 
upon the cornea and conjunctiva after dropping a 2 — 5 per cent, 
solution in the eye, but that it was decidedly analgesic to deep-seated 
pain. It is not mydriatic. 

Dionin is also a corneal lymphogogue, i.e., it increases the flow 
of lymph which is the source of nutrition to the cornea, and causes 
edema of the conjunctiva. This action appears quite rapidly and 
may last for several days but the eye becomes immune to it in about 
one week, so that it must be discontinued for a few days. 



146 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

It is used as an analgesic for deep-seated ocular pain and to 
remove opacities from the cornea. It may be used in solutions of 
from 5 to 10 per cent, or as the powder. Dionin is rarely used 
internally. 

The following prescriptions illustrate the use of opium and its 
alkaloids : 

For Horses and Cattle 
Anodyne. 

R Tincturse Opii ij 

Spiritus iEth. Nit. ij 

Olei Lini O. j 

M. Ft. Haustus. 
Sig. Give at one dose. 

Enteritis. 

R Pulveris Opii 3 j-ij 

Pulveris Camphorae 3 j 

Excipient q. s. 
M. Ft. _ Bolus. 
Sig. Give at once, repeat every 4 to 6 hours if necessary. 

Astringent. 

$ Tincturse Opii 3 iij 

Tincturae Catechu 3 v 

Cretse Preparatae 3 iij 

Aquae q. s ad. O. j 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. 4 ounces every 4 hours to a horse with diarrhoea. 

Or Sun cholera cure. 

B Tr. Opii. 

Tr. Rhei. 

Tr. Camphorae. 

Tr. Capsici. 

Spts. Mentha? Piperatae aa. 
M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. 1 ounce every two or three hours. For calves and foals, dram 
doses. Dogs 5 to 15 drops. Dilute well. 

Cough. 

I£ Syrupi Pruni Virginianse TIT, X xx 

Diacetylmorphinse Hydrochloridi gr. "Yiq 

Ammonii Chloridi grs. iij 

Glycerini et. 

Aquae aa. q. s ad. 3 j 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. Dram doses for dogs, half oz. doses for horses. 



CHLORAL HYDRATE 147 



Anodyne. 

# Tincturae Opii tfl. j-x 

Aquas 3 ij 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. One dose. Repeat every hour until opium effect is obtained. 

Liquor Morphinse Hyperder- 
maticus, 1ST. F. (Magendie's solu- 
tion of morphine). 

R Morphinae Sulphatis 3.3 gm. ; grs. xlviij 

Acidi Salieylici 0.1 gm. ; grs. jss 

Aquae Destillatae (warm) 100 mils ; 3 iij 

Dissolve the morphine sulphate and the salicylic acid in the warm 
water and filter through absorbent cotton. When cool, pass 
a little distilled water through the filter to make 100 mils. 

Astringent. 

I£ Bismuthi Subnitratis grs. v 

Tinct. Opii Camph R xx 

Misturae Cretae q. s. ad 3 j 

M. Ft, Solutio. 
Sig. Every hour. 

R Morphinae Sulphatis gr. *4-iij 

Aquae Destillatae 3 j 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

For hypodermic injection before general anesthesia, 
or 

Morphinae Sulphatis gr. ^-Mj 

Hyoscinae Hydrobrom gr. 1/100-150 

Cactini gr. 1/50-1/25 

Aquae Dest 3 j 

M. Ft. Sol. 



CHLORALUM HYDRATUM 

Synonyms. Chloral, Chloral Hydrate 

Properties. Chloral hydrate is prepared by the union of- a 
molecule of water with trichloraldehyde (chloral), the latter being 
a product of the action of chlorine on alcohol. It occurs as sepa- 
rate rhomboidal crystals, having an aromatic, acrid, penetrating 
odor and bitterish caustic taste. It is slightly volatile when exposed 
to the air, is freely soluble in water, alcohol, ether, chloroform, and 
the fixed and fatty oils, and liquefies when triturated with camphor, 
menthol, thymol or phenol. It decomposes in strongly alkaline solu- 
tions, liberating chloroform. 



148 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Preparations and Doses. 

Narcotic (II. & C. 5ij ss — i y (.75 — 125) 
(per os. or rectum. 
Chloralum Hydratum 

Sedative (H. & C. 5J— ij ; 30.— 60. 
(D. gr. v— "lx; 0.3—4. 

Chloral Camphor N. F. Equal parts of chloral hydrate and 
camphor. Used as a counterirritant. 

External and Local Action. Locally it is anesthetic, anti- 
septic and irritant. It is especially irritant to mucous membranes 
and raw surfaces, so that when strong solutions are brought into 
contact with wounds or mucous membranes sloughing follows. On 
account of this action it is not suitable for hypodermic medication 
and even when given per os care must be taken to dilute it suffi- 
ciently so that it will not injure (burn) the throat and esophagus. 

Digestive System. Small doses may be slightly sedative or 
anesthetic to the stomach although causing a sensation of burning 
in the throat, together with salivation. Large doses may irritate 
the stomach and cause nausea, vomiting and purging. It is also 
an antiferment. 

Nervous System. The principal action of the drug is seen 
upon this system. In moderate doses it depresses the cerebrum 
without appreciably affecting the respiratory and circulatory sys- 
tems and produces a deep sleep lasting for several hours. The 
narcosis is produced quite promptly and lasts for several hours with- 
out causing digestive or other disturbances. Larger doses depress 
all the centers, including the motor, cause deeper sleep, lessen the 
reflex excitability of the spinal cord and depress the respiratory and 
vasomotor center in the medulla. In this way it may serve as an 
anesthetic or narcotic for operations. It has no effect upon the 
peripheral nerves. Toxic doses produce all the symptoms seen in 
chloroform poisoning. 

Respiratory System. There is no effect from moderate doses. 
Large doses render the respirations irregular and feeble while toxic 
doses paralyze the respiratory center. Death is due to respiratory 
paralysis. 

Circulatory System. This system is not affected by small or 
moderate doses. Larger doses may accelerate the heart for a short 
time but this is soon followed by depression so that the pulse becomes 
slower, softer and weaker. The peripheral arteries are dilated by 
direct depression on the arterial muscles. Toxic doses lower the 
blood pressure by direct depression of the cardiac muscle, by de- 
pressing the vasomotor center and by depression of the arterial 
muscles. 



CHLORAL HYDRATE 149 

Metabolism. The prolonged use of the drug leads to increased 
proteid destruction and lessened oxidation and causes fatty degener- 
ation of the internal organs but this in much less degree than with 
chloroform. Hopkins (1911), in studies upon metabolism, gave dogs 
as much as 1.5 gm. per kilo as the daily dose, enough to produce 
profound narcosis and anesthesia. He found no areas of necrosis 
and only occasional very slight fatty changes in the liver, of the 
type produced by chloroform, and no changes at all in the kidneys. 

Absorption and Elimination. Chloral is easily and quickly 
absorbed from the digestive tract, and it may be given by the mouth 
or rectum, the dose being the same in either case. It circulates in 
the blood unchanged. It is eliminated chiefly by the kidneys as the 
non-toxic urochloralic acid. Urine containing this acid will react 
to Fehling's test for reducing sugars. A small amount is eliminated 
by the lungs. 

Temperature. Chloral hydrate is a decided antipyretic in 
medicinal doses and toxic doses may be followed by a dangerous 
reduction of temperature. The antipyretic action is probably due 
to dilatation of the cutaneous vessels, decreased muscular movements, 
and probably to depression of the heat producing center. 

Toxicology. Although chloral hydrate is a powerful hypnotic, 
very large doses have failed to produce death. The fatal dose is 
said to be from 5 to 6 ounces (150. — 180.0) for the horse, 2—8 
drams (8. — 30.) for dogs. The characteristic symptoms of acute 
poisoning are sleep, coma, rapid feeble pulse, slow respirations, fol- 
lowed by weak rapid ones, muscular relaxation and collapse. Death 
is due to respiratory paralysis. 

Treatment. Keep the animal warm, since those kept warm 
artificially have been found able to withstand much larger doses 
than those not so protected. The respiratory and vasomotor centers, 
especially the former, are usually the seat of danger, and artificial 
respiration should be instituted when there is any sign of approach- 
ing paralysis. Caffeine should be administered since it stimulates 
both of the above mentioned centers. Atropine, strychnine and 
ammonia may be used as antidotes ; atropine and ammonia, for 
action upon the respiratory center, and strychnine, because it stimu- 
lates those parts depressed by chloral hydrate. Active diuresis 
should be induced by administering hot drinks or, in emergency, warm 
salines or warm tap water per rectum to promote diuresis and elimi- 
nation of the drug. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Narcotic for Operations Upon the Horse or Cow. It is often 
to be preferred to chloroform and always to morphine. It produces 
only a medium narcosis which is usually sufficient for most cases. 
One advantage of this drug is that it may be administered before 
casting. It causes so much depression that the casting may be 



150 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

done more safely for both patient and operator. It may also be 
given to vicious animals before shoeing. The narcosis lasts for 
from one to two hours. Intraperitoneal injections were very much 
recommended at one time for this purpose. 

2. As a Hypnotic for all Co?iditions of Over excitement. In all 
spasmodic conditions, tetanus, colic, convulsions, epilepsy. It is 
an antidote to strychnine poisoning and may be given per rectum 
for this purpose, but it is not a good antidote in human practice 
on account of dangerous depression of the respiratory center. It 
may be of considerable service in certain conditions to quiet an animal 
and prevent undue straining as in prolapse of the rectum, vagina, 
or uterus. In such cases the administration of chloral hydrate will 
facilitate the return and retention of the part. 

3. As an Antiferment in stomach fermentation and flatulence 
of the horse. 

4. Externally it is sometimes used for its mild anesthetic and 
antiseptic properties to relieve pruritis. 

5. Chloral-camphor is sometimes used as a counterirritant in 
human medicine but has no particular place in veterinary practice. 

Administration. Chloral hydrate may be given per os, in 
capsule, or solution. Careful attention must be taken in the first 
case that the animal does not chew the capsule, since serious burning 
of the throat and esophagus will result. In the last case, it should 
be well diluted or administered in mucilaginous drink. It may also 
be injected per rectum or intra-peritoneally, in solution in water. 

R Chlorali Hydrati 3 ij 

Acacia? % j 

Aquse q. s ad. O. vj 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. At one dose per rectum as narcotic for horse. 

R Chlorali Hydrati gr. lx 

Acacise gr. xxx 

Aquae q. s ad. I viij 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. At one dose per rectum for a dog with strychnine poisoning. 

R Chlorali Hydrati B j 

Aquae q. s ad. O. ij 

Sig. One dose for cow with prolapse of uterus. 

OTHER HYPNOTICS OF THIS GROUP 

* Butyl-Chloral Hydrate (Croton Chloral Hydrate) is an oily 
liquid formed by the action of chlorine on acetic acid. It is con- 
verted into the solid Butyl-Chloral Hydrate by the addition of water. 
Butyl-Chloral Hydrate occurs as white, pearly scales, with a pungent 

* Unofficial. 



CHLORETONE — PARALDEHYDE 151 

odor and disagreeable acid taste. Its hypnotic action is very strong 
but of short duration. In general the action of this drug resembles 
that of chloral hydrate but it is less irritating to the stomach. It is 
recommended as especially serviceable in trifacial neuralgia of man. 
It is of no importance in veterinary medicine. 

* Chloretone (chlor-butanol or chloroform acetone) is a com- 
pound formed by the addition of caustic potash to equal weights 
of chloroform and acetone. It occurs as a crystalline powder of a 
camphoraceous odor, is sparingly soluble in cold water, freely so 
in hot water, alcohol, ether, glycerin and the fixed and volatile oils. 
It is used mainly as a hypnotic, local anesthetic, and preservative. 
Its use as a hypnotic is almost entirely confined to laboratory animals. 
Results are produced promptly and are very persistent, but it is not 
suitable for work where it is desired that the animal recover. It may 
be used as an antiseptic and anesthetic dusting powder on wounds 
and as a preservative for certain solutions of organic composition as 
adrenaline, cocaine. 

Paraldehyde is formed by treating aldehyde with dilute nitric 
or sulphuric acid. It occurs as a colorless, volatile liquid with a 
strong etherial odor and disagreeable pungent taste. It resembles 
chloral in action but is not so depressant to the heart. Large doses 
are apt to disturb digestion. The uses are similar to those of chloral. 
Locally, it resembles ether and by its irritation of the mouth and 
probably also of the stomach is a reflex respiratory and circulatory 
stimulant. It is rapidly absorbed and soon produces sleep without 
any appreciable disturbance of the medullary centers. Its chief 
disadvantages are its unpleasant taste, irritant local effects and per- 
sistence of odor and taste. It may be given in water or sweetened 
water. It may also be given per rectum dissolved in water. It is 
relatively non toxic. jNToel and Soutter (1913) recommended it 
for intravenous anesthesia in man used as follows: From 5 to 15 
mils each of paraldehyde and ether are dissolved in 150 mils of 1 
per cent, saline infusion and injected at the rate of 5 to 10 mils per 
minute. This produces a mild narcosis at once and deep anesthesia 
in one minute, which ceases after stopping the infusion. The 
anesthesia is followed by easy recovery or sleep. 

* Amylene Hydrate (dimethyl-ethyl-carbinol) a light, color- 
less, oily fluid soluble in 10 parts of water. It has a similar but 
weaker hypnotic action than paraldehyde. Its odor and taste are 
also less disagreeable. 

* Dormiol (amylene-chloral) is a compound of amylene with 
chloral which has been recommended as a hypnotic. It is a colorless,, 
oily liquid, of a camphoraceous odor, and cooling taste ; soluble very 
slowly but freely in hot water ; miscible in all proportions in alcohol, 
ether, chloroform and fatty oils. 

* Unofficial. 



152 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

* Chloralformamidum (cbloralamide) is a compound of chloral 
and fonnamide which splits into its constituents in the blood. It 
occurs as colorless, lustrous crystals, without odor, and having a 
somewhat bitter taste. Soluble in 18.7 parts of water, and in 1.3 
parts of alcohol. Readily soluble in ether, glycerin, acetone, and 
acetic ether. Its hypnotic action is due to the chloral but it is be- 
lieved that the formamide renders it less dangerous to the heart and 
vasoconstrictor center. 

Sulphonmethanum Sulphonal, sulphonetliylmethanum Trional 
and diethysulplionediethy methane Tetronal are compounds of ethyl 
with sulphur (sulphones) and differ from each other only in con- 
taining two, three and four molecules of ethyl respectively. They 
are crystalline bodies, not very soluble in water. They have been 
introduced as substitutes for chloral hydrate but are of no importance 
in veterinary medicine. Average dose for dogs, 12 grains (0.75). 

* Veronal (diethymalonylurea or diethyl-barbituric acid) occurs 
as a white, crystalline, odorless, slightly bitter powder, slightly solu- 
ble in water, more readily so in alcohol. The action is similar to 
trional. It usually causes sleep in man, which results promptly and 
lasts several hours, but the depression may persist much longer. It 
is not used in veterinary medicine. Average dose, dog, 5 grains 
(0.3). 

* Bromural (monobromiso-valeryianyl-urea) resembles veronal 
but is less active. 

Urethane (sethylis carbamas U. S. P.) occurs as colorless, 
columnar crystals or scales, odorless and having a cooling saline 
taste. Soluble in water, alcohol, ether, chloroform and glycerin. It 
is a mild hypnotic and diuretic. Decomposes in the body to urea. 
Average dose for dog, 1 dram (4.0). 

* Hedonal (methylpropylcarbinol-urethane) occurs as a white 
powder sparingly soluble in water but readily soluble in other or- 
ganic solvents, and of faint aromatic odor and taste. This appears 
to have a greater hypnotic effect than urethane, but is also unre- 
liable. Average dose for dogs, 15 grains (1 gm.). Federoff (1910) 
recommended it as an intravenous anesthetic. Page (1912) recom- 
mended a solution of 0.75 per cent, in normal saline given at the 
rate of 150 mils per minute, adult dose (in human), 500 mils; 
while Veale (1912) used it in quantities up to 1200 mils but found 
larger amounts dangerous, causing edema of skin and lungs, bron- 
chitis and pneumonia. 

CANNABIS 

Synonym. Hemp. Indican Cannabis 
Parts Used. The dried flowering tops of the pistulate plants 
of Cannabis Sativa, Linne, or of the variety indica, Lamarck, 

* Unofficial. 



CANNABIS 153 

gathered while the fruits are yet undeveloped and are carrying all 
their natural resin. Haschish, bhang, charas, ganga, etc., are dif- 
ferent preparations of the drug used by the natives of the East as 
habit drugs. The United States Pharmacopoeia requires a physio- 
logical assay of preparations of cannabis. 

Constituents. Cannabis contains 29 per cent, of resin, a vola- 
tile oil, and very minute amounts of an alkaloid cannabinine and 
some other alkaloids. Its activity is due to the resin. Cannibinol 
is a mixture consisting chiefly of resin and oil. Cannabis is very 
variable in strength unless standardized, and furthermore, tends to 
deteriorate. It was formerly supposed that the Indian plant was a 
distinct species but it differs so little from other forms that botanists 
now agree that it is merely a different variety. It was also thought 
to contain no medical properties when grown in temperate climates 
and that only the Indian variety was of therapeutic value. Experi- 
ments, however, have shown that other varieties are valuable, espe- 
cially Cannabis Africana and Cannabis Americana. The fluid-ex- 
tract of either is now standardized by the best pharmaceutical houses 
so that the dose is the same as that of the Indian drug. Water pre- 
cipitates the resin. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Extractum Cannabis. H. Sss — ij ; 2. — 8. D. gr % — ii ' 

0.015—0.12. 

Fluid extractum Cannabis. IT. 5iv — viij ; 16. — 30. D. Til 

i— x; 0.06—0.6. 

Tinctura Cannabis. H. Not used. D. 171 xv — xxx; 

1.— 2. 

External and Local Action. There is no action on the un- 
broken skin but it may be slightly sedative to mucous membranes. 

Digestive Tract. Cannabis has no direct effect upon the di- 
gestive tract. Its use is not followed by constipation or other bad 
effects. 

Nervous System. Cannabis is a distinct depressant to the brain 
and cord. In man this action may be preceded by a brief period 
of stimulation but this action is rarely seen in the horse. It is a 
distinct depressant and hypnotic and probably ranks ahead of opium 
for this purpose in equine practice. After full doses the animals 
feel drowsy, sleepy, have a disinclination to move and may finally 
pass into a stage of narcosis which may last from 12 to 24 hours, 
and then recover. There is some difference in the action of can- 
nabis on different animals and occasionally there is an idiosyncrasy 
toward the drug. Some dogs show delirium and mania instead of 
depression. 

Respiratory and Circulatory Systems. These are but little 
influenced although there may be some acceleration of the pulse 



154 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

if the drug is smoked and inhaled in man, or if the dose is very 
large, in horses, although the usual effect from narcotic doses is to 
slow the heart. The respirations may be accelerated somewhat if 
the period of excitement is present but are slowed during the narcotic 
stage. 

Cannabis is comparatively nontoxic to the domestic animals. 
Winslow says, " A horse receiving % ounce of the solid extract be- 
came drowsy. Sleep after a few hours passed into stupor, and 
stupor into coma. The respirations became slow, the pulse slightly 
accelerated, and the animal so anesthetic that amputation of the 
penis was done on the following day without producing the slightest 
pain or struggling. The animal had to be supported in slings and 
only recovered after three days." 

Muir (1900) gave large doses intravenously to horses, as much 
as 15 mils to a 575 pound pony and 45 mils to a 1050 pound horse. 
Both animals were at first much excited and delirious, the first pass- 
ing into sleep in a very few minutes, the second remaining excited 
for twelve to twenty-four hours. Muir concludes that 50 mils can 
be given with safety intravenously to a horse. 

Hoare says, " In the dog 10 grains to 2 drams produce stupor 
and paralysis of the hind limbs ; the narcotic condition may last for 
two days and the animal recover." 

Therapeutics. Cannabis is Indicated for the Relief of Pain, 
Spasm and Nervous Irritability. It is superior to opium or mor- 
phine in equine practice and, although its action is not so rapid when 
given per os as morphine hypodermically, it is more reliable than 
either opium or morphine. It is especially superior to opium or 
morphine for the relief of pain and spasm of the intestinal tract 
because it does not tend to cause constipation. It is occasionally 
employed to control the spasms of chorea, epilepsy, tetanus and 
cough. 

As a Narcotic for Operations Upon the Horse. Many veteri- 
narians are employing cannabis intravenously to produce a state of 
narcosis sufficient for many operations upon the horse. The fluid- 
extract is given intravenously in from 5 to 10 mil doses, and nar- 
cosis takes place quite promptly. 

Administration. Cannabis may be given per os in capsule, 
with a syringe or in a drench with water. Water precipitates the 
resin but does not appear to interfere with the action of the drug. 
It may be administered intravenously as the fluid-extract. Some 
clinicians filter it just before its intravenous administration, others 
do not. Although it is claimed by some that there is danger of 
embolism on account of a precipitation of the resin in the blood, 
there are no reported bad effects from its use in this manner. 

It should not be used subcutaneously, since the resin is not ab- 
sorbed rapidly from the subcutaneous tissues. 



BROMIDES 155 



BROMIDES 



The most common bromides used for narcotic effect are those of 
potassium, sodium and ammonium, and to a small extent those of 
lithium, strontium, calcium and zinc. Their characteristics are 
similar. All occur as colorless crystals, or white granular powders, 
of strong salty, bitter taste, are very soluble in water and moderately 
soluble in alcohol, with the exception of that of potassium. The 
dose is practically the same for each salt. 

Horses and cattle, §j — ij '■> 30, 60. 

Dogs, grs. v — lx; 0.3 — 4. 

Diluted (10 per cent.) hydrobromic acid is sometimes used for 
the bromide action but has no advantage over the alkaline salts. 

Doses. H. 5 ij — vj ; 8. — 25. D. ni x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. 

Physiological' Action. The action of the bromides depends 
both upon the bromine present and the other element of the com- 
bination, since all are dissociable. Thus, each salt shows a certain 
amount of variation from the others. The action of the bromine, 
however, is distinctive, but the action of the other elements are also 
distinctive. Since Potassium Bromide is most frequently employed 
it will be discussed first and the difference between it and the others 
pointed out later. 

External and Local Action. There is no effect upon the un- 
broken skin. Upon raw surfaces and mucous membranes it has a 
salt action and is irritant unless well diluted. If well diluted it is 
slightly sedative to mucous membranes, and lessens reflex excita- 
bility, especially of the pharynx. Before the days of cocaine, solu- 
tions of the bromides were painted in the throat as mild anesthetics 
to favor laryngeal examination. 

Digestive System. Potassium bromide causes irritation and 
salivation due to its salty taste. Excessive doses may cause nausea 
and looseness of the bowels. It is freely and rapidly absorbed, 
traces being found in the urine within a few minutes after adminis- 
tration. The salt is quite evenly distributed in the body but the chief 
action is upon the nervous system. 

Nervous System. There is a moderate but lasting depression 
on the whole nervous system that may be maintained for several 
days with little if any effect upon the medullary centers. Potassium 
bromide depresses the cerebrum diminishing the sense of pain and 
special senses. Large doses cause drowsiness and favor sleep in the 
human subject, but enormous doses will not force sleep in the day 
time or if the patient is up and about. The motor areas in the 
cortex are also depressed. Reflex activity is also lessened so that 
the drug acts opposite to strychnine. The depression of the reflexes 
gives a general depression of muscular tone throughout the body and 



156 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

a loss or depression of the sexual reflex and usually that of the 
bladder. 

Respiratory System. Full doses slow and depress the respi- 
rations owing to a slight depression of the respiratory center. 
Therapeutic doses have no effect except to diminish the cough reflex 
and lessen the tone of the respiratory muscles. 

Circulatory System. In ordinary doses there is no effect but 
in large amounts the circulation is depressed, the heart beat is slower, 
softer and weaker with a shortened systole and lengthened diastole. 
The blood vessels are dilated and blood pressure is lowered. The 
potassium ion is responsible for this action upon the heart as the 
other bromides do not have any such action. 

Sexual Organs. Both sexual desire and power are diminished 
through depression of the cerebrum and cord. 

Bladder. There is a marked diminution of the functional 
activity and muscular power of the bladder under long continued 
doses. 

Absorption and Elimination. Potassium bromide is rapidly 
absorbed and begins to be quickly eliminated, chiefly by the kidneys 
(increasing the secretion of the urine). It is also eliminated by the 
skin, saliva, mammary glands and bronchial mucosa. Under pro- 
longed dosage, it tends to accumulate in the body, being found in 
all parts, especially the blood. 

Temperature. Large doses lower temperature by depressing the 
circulation. 

BROMISM 

Bromism or chronic bromine poisoning is shown by drowsiness, 
depression, some cutaneous anesthesia, muscular weakness, poor cir- 
culation, cold extremities, anemia, and cutaneous eruptions. The 
treatment consists in withdrawing the drug, and aiding its elimina- 
tion by administering sodium chloride which hastens its excretion. 
Administer plenty of water. Diuretics and purgatives should also 
be given. Keep up the body activity and administer stimulants such 
as caffeine and strychnine as the physiological antidotes. 

Comparison of the Bromides. 1 With a few minor exceptions 
the bromides are identical in action. Potassium bromide contains 
66 per cent, of bromine and is the most toxic to the heart and mus- 
cular system. Sodium bromide contains 78 per cent, of bromine 
but is less hypnotic than the preceding salt as sodium increases 
cerebral activity but, on the other hand, since the sodium ion does 
not affect the heart and muscles, it is less toxic. 

Ammonium bromide produces some slight cardiac stimulation on 
account of the ammonium ion, but otherwise is identical in action 
with the potassium salt. 

Lithium bromide is the most hypnotic of the group. It contains 



ASAFCETIDA 157 

92 per cent, of bromine and closely resembles the sodium salt in 
action. 

Therapeutics of the Bromides. Since the bromides are espe- 
cially serviceable in the treatment of functional nervous disorders 
they are not nearly so serviceable in veterinary as in human medi- 
cine. They are especially indicated to control the convulsions of 
epilepsy in both human and veterinary medicine. Their use in 
veterinary practice is largely limited to small animals, in which 
case they may be employed to control the spasms of epilepsy, epilepti- 
form convulsions and eclampsia. However, they are of doubtful 
value in the convulsions of distemper, etc. Although they act op- 
posite to strychnine, they are not reliable antidotes to poisoning by 
this drug. 

For epilepsy or ether convulsive attacks they may be combined 
with chloral and administered per rectum. 

Epilepsy or Convulsion in Dogs. 

R Sodii Bromidi. 

Potassii Bromidi aa grs. lxxxv 

Ammonii Bromidi grs. xxvij 

Aquae q. s ad. I iv 

Misce et fiat Solutio. 

Sig. Tablespoonful every four hours. 

ANTISPASMODICS 

The most important antispasmodics have been discussed in connec- 
tion with other groups. Two which have not been discussed are : 
Asafcetida and Valerian. 

ASAFCETIDA 

This is a gum resin obtained from the roots of Ferula fcetida, a 
native of Persia and Afghanistan. It occurs in irregular crystalline 
masses or tears, is of a yellowish brown color, persistent garlicy odor 
and acrid taste. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Asafcetida. H. and C. §ss — j ; 15. — 30. D. gr. iij — xij ; 

.18— .8. 
Emulsum Asafoetidce 4 per cent, in water. D. ,5ss — j ; 15 

—30. 
Tinctura Asafoetidce. H. grj — iv ; 60. — 120. D. oss — j ; 2. 

—4. 
Pilules Asafoetidce (3 grains each). D. 1 — 4 pills. 

Action and Uses. Asafcetida is a feeble carminative, circula- 
tory and nervous stimulant, and antispasmodic. It is used entirely 
as an antispasmodic and carminative. It is useful in colics and 



158 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

convulsions of the young and may be of considerable service when 
administered in an enema. 

It has been used externally to stop feather pulling of birds and 
to prevent bandage chewing with dogs. 

VALERIANA — VALERIAN 

Valerian is the rhizomes and roots of Valeriana officialise a plant 
of Europe. It contains a volatile oil and valeric acid. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Valeriana. II. and C. §j — ij ; 30 — 60. D. gr. x — 5j ; 0.6 

—I. 
Tinctura Valerianae. D. oss — j ; 2. — 4. 
Tinctura Valerianae Ammoniata. D. 5ss — j ; .2. — I. 

Action and Uses. Valerian has the usual effect of a volatile oil 
and so is carminative. It slightly stimulates the heart, vasaniotor 
and respiratory centers. It has been recommended as an antispas- 
modic and antihysteric in human medicine, but since it produces 
this action by stimulating the highest centers which exert psychic 
control, it must be of doubtful value in veterinary medicine. 

The valerates (valerinates) of zinc, iron, quinine and ammonium 
do not have carminative action and exert but little of the action of 
the liquid preparations. Average dose. D. gr. ij — v; 0.13—0.3. 

Valerian and the valerates have been especially recommended 
for the treatment of chorea in dogs but the results have not been 
satisfactory. 

ANESTHETICS 

Theories of Narcosis. Several theories have been advanced as 
to how the narcotics reach the cerebral cell contents and anesthesia 
is produced. The most generally accepted of these are : 

1. Meyer- Overton. This was advanced by Meyer and Overton 
separately. They believe that these drugs exert their chief action 
upon the central nervous system, because they are taken up by the 
fats and lipoids, lecithin, cholesterin, cerebrin, etc., which are 
abundant there, and are held in contact with the cell structures. 
According to these men the anesthetic properties increase with the 
solubility in fats and lipoids and insolubility in water. This rela- 
tionship of solubility of hypnotics and anesthetics is at least very 
striking and there seems to be considerable evidence to support this 
theory, which is the one generally accepted. It shows simply how 
the brain cell is reached, but does not explain the action upon it. 

2. Moore and Roaf. This theory is based upon the assump- 
tion that anesthesia or narcosis is due to a change in the protoplasm 
of the cerebral cells by the formation of loose compounds of ether, 



ANESTHESIA 159 

chloroform, etc., with the cell proteids, which results in the limita- 
tion of the activities of the cerebral protoplasm. Since the com- 
pounds are unstable, they remain formed only so long as the vapor- 
pressure of the anesthetic is maintained in the blood, so that nar- 
cosis ceases soon after the stopping of the administration. They do 
not doubt but that a certain amount of anesthetic will be taken up 
by a lipoid in a physical fashion, on account of the great solubility 
of the anesthetic in the lipoids. But they hold that the portion so 
taken up and held by the lipoid is passive and not active, and that 
it is the portion taken up by the proteid which is active in paralyzing 
the activity of the protoplasm and causing anesthesia. These men 
also strengthen their theory from the preceding by the fact that the 
greater amount of fatty tissue in the patient to be anesthetized, the 
greater is the amount of anesthetic required. They further contend 
that the portion of the anesthetic retained by lipoid is imprisoned 
and more anesthetic must be given to raise the " vapor-pressure " of 
the anesthetic sufficiently to cause a combination between cell proto- 
plasm and anesthetic with anesthetization as the result. 

The first of these theories assumes that the ether dissolved in the 
fats and lipoids is the anesthetic part; the other, that this ether is 
locked up and the anesthetic ether is that which enters into combina- 
tion with the cell proteids. 

3. Verworn. This theory accepts the Meyer-Overton theory 
in so far as it shows the necessary properties for an anesthetic to 
reach the field of action, but Verworn goes further and explains the 
depression of the activity of the brain cells. He shows that in nar- 
cosis there is interference with the oxidative processes of the cells or 
that " the factor which produces the symptom-complex of narcosis is 
under all circumstances the suppression of the power to carry on 
oxidation," the supposition being that narcotics render the oxidases 
(oxygen carriers) in living tissues incapable of carrying oxygen. 
He shows that this may take place in any cells of the body, but that 
the cells of the cerebrum are especially sensitive to a lack of oxygen 
and are depressed with very much less of the narcotic than is neces- 
sary to depress the nerves and muscles. 

ANESTHESIA 

When a general anesthetic is administered in sufficient quantity 
to put the animal in a state of coma, accompanied by relaxation of 
the muscles, and abolition of all the reflexes, the patient is in a state 
of complete general anesthesia. Anesthesia may be practically con- 
sidered in the light of toxicology; and the production of it ?3 really 
an acute poisoning of the various drugs, the patient being carried 
through the different degrees of poisoning into a state of narcosis 
which is just short of collapse. 



160 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Properties cf General Anesthetics. In order to be of use as 

a general anesthetic, a drug must be very rapidly absorbable, pro- 
duce anesthesia very quickly, and be rapidly eliminated. Further- 
more, it should produce muscular relaxation as well as complete un- 
consciousness, i.e., abolish cerebral and spinal activity without dan* 
serous depression of the vital centers in the medulla or permanent 
derangement of the central nervous system. Since these drugs are 
very volatile and their vapors are absorbed rapidly by the lungs, their 
administration by inhalation is preferred, as it is more easily 
controlled, but, on the other hand, a sufficient amount given per os, 
rectum or intravenously will produce the same action. 

The principal members of the group of anesthetics are chloro- 
form, ether, nitrous oxide, ethyl chloride and ethyl bromide. 

Anesthesia. For the convenience of study the action of anes- 
thetics is usually divided into three stages, but since these stages are 
only different degrees of the same action and there is no real line of 
demarcation between them, it is quite optional where the line of 
division is made. In human medicine four stages are usually 
described: stimulant, narcotic, anesthetic and paralytic. Since the 
first two cannot be easily differentiated in the domesticated animals, 
it seems well to discuss anesthesia in the three stages, stimulant, 
anesthetic and paralytic. 

Stimulant. This is characterized by stimulation of the cere- 
brum and cerebellum and is manifested by great excitement and 
involuntary movements. The first few inhalations may produce a 
sensation of asphyxia, so that the respirations are often stopped 
voluntarily. The pulse and respirations are soon accelerated and the 
pupils dilated. During this period the horse often whinnies and the 
dog barks. All the above symptoms are due to excitement or stimu- 
lation. There is usually an increased secretion of saliva, mucous 
and tears, probably due to the irritant action of the drugs upon the 
parts involved. 

Anesthetic. This is the condition it is desired to produce and 
maintain. It is characterized by complete paralysis of the brain, 
and motor reflexes in the spinal cord and depression of all the cen- 
ters in the medulla. Consciousness, sensation and most of the re- 
flexes are lost, the corneal reflex being one of the last to go. All 
voluntary muscle is relaxed but smooth muscle is not so apt to be 
affected, although there may be some relaxation of the sphincters. 
The pulse is slow, full and soft on account of lowered blood pressure. 
The respirations are regular but shallow. Temperature falls on 
account of lessened heat production and increased heat loss. Since 
the patient will not feel pain and the reflex activity is so lowered 
that the heart will not be reflexly inhibited by the shock of the 
operation, this is the period during which it is desired to operate 
safely. 



CHLOROFORM 161 

Paralytic. This period is characterized by progressive paralysis 
of the centers iri the medulla with total abolition of the reflexes, even 
the lowest ones being depressed. This period should be avoided 
unless it is desired to kill the animal. Feces and urine may be 
passed involuntarily, the respirations become shallow, labored and 
then cease, the pupils are widely dilated. The pulse is slow, weak 
and generally persists in normal animals after the respirations have 
stopped. It is generally concluded that death in anesthesia is due 
to paralysis of the respiratory center, although the heart stops so 
soon after the cessation of respiration that it is immaterial which is 
the cause of death. Both are much depressed and the weaker goes 
first. 

General Uses for Anesthesia. To relieve pain, overcome 
spasm and relax the muscles. For these purposes they are used in 
surgical operations, in labor to check straining, to subdue the con- 
vulsions of tetanus, strychnine poisoning, etc. ; to facilitate the reduc- 
tion of fractures, luxations and hernia, and at the same time over- 
come the pain of the operation. 

CHLOROFORMUM — CHLOROFORM 

Chloroform is a heavy, volatile, noninllammable, colorless liquid 
of peculiar odor and burning sweetish taste, made by the action of 
chlorinated lime on alcohol, or by treating acetone with chlorinated 
lime in the same manner. The latter method is now preferred be- 
cause the yield is better and the product much purer than that pro- 
duced by the alcohol process. It is soluble in 200 times its volume 
of water, to 4 per cent, in blood serum, and in all proportions in al- 
cohol and ether. It should contain from 99 — 99.4 per cent, by 
weight of absolute chloroform and from 0.6 — 1 per cent, of alcohol 
to meet the standard of the United States Pharmacopoeia. On long 
standing or when exposed to sunlight or a flame, chloroform may 
decompose with the formation of free hydrochloric acid, or the poi- 
sonous carbonyl chloride, or free chlorine, which is very irritating. 
Alcohol acts as a preservative since chloroform does not undergo 
decomposition so long as there is any alcohol present to be oxidized. 
Hence the pharmacopoeia specifies that the above amount of alcohol 
must be present. 

Preparations and Doses. For internal administration. 

Chloroform. H. 5j— ij ; 4—8. D. TT\. ij— xv ; 0.13—1.0. 
Aqua Chloroformi (water) % per cent. As a vehicle only. 
Spiritus Chloroformi (6 per cent.). H. §j — ij ; 30. — 60. 

D. 3ss— j; 2.— 4. 
Emulsum Chloroformi (4 per cent.). D. 5j — iv ; 4. — 16. 
Linimentum Chloroformi, composed of chloroform 30 parts 

and soap liniment 70 parts. 



162 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

External and Local Action. If allowed to evaporate upon the 
skin, chloroform produces cold with constriction of the blood ves- 
sels together with local anesthesia, but if the vapor is confined or the 
drug is rubbed into the skin it is an irritant, causing redness and 
vesiccation. Chloroform is also antiseptic; even in dilute solutions 
(the aqua) it will prevent or retard putrefaction and fermentation as 
in urine. 

Digestive System. If administered per os in strong solution, 
chloroform is irritant to the mouth, throat, and stomach. Dilute 
solutions produce a sensation of warmth to the stomach, increase 
the saliva, gastic and intestinal secretions, stimulate peristalsis and 
aid in the expulsion of gas. In other words, it is a carminative. It 
may also be soothing to the stomach and antemetic in weak solution. 

Circulatory System. Blood pressure is always lowered by 
anesthesia with chloroform. This may be somewhat accounted for 
by depression of the heart and to some extent by the dilatation of the 
blood vessels from depression of the vasomotor center. Occasionally 
death occurs early in chloroform anesthesia from reflex stimulation 
of the vagus and consequent stopping of the heart. A strong concen- 
tration of the vapor is more dangerous in this respect than a weak 
one. 

Respiratory System. There is a decided depression of the 
respiratory center preceded by a very short period of stimulation. 
In some cases respiratory paralysis is the cause of death, and in ex- 
periments with much diluted vapor the respiration regularly ceases 
before the heart; but the heart is too weak to permit of resuscita- 
tion. 

Absorption. Chloroform is rapidly absorbed from the gastro- 
intestinal tract and from the lungs when inhaled. The changes 
which it undergoes in the body are not well known. It is mostly 
excreted by the lungs, some by the kidneys and a small amount seems 
to be oxidized in the tissues. 

Metabolism. The prolonged administration of chloroform in- 
creases the amount of urea, phosphates and sulphates in the urine 
and has a tendency to cause fatty degeneration in the internal organs, 
in the following order of extent and frequency: Liver, kidneys, 
spleen, heart, arteries, and cardiac ganglia and, perhaps, the lungs. 
The main effects upon metabolism are due to the marked destructive 
changes in the liver. There is a decrease in the storage of glycogen 
and, as a consequence, an increase of sugar in the blood. In the 
urine there is an increase in phosphates, chlorides, sulphates and 
total nitrogen, the ammonia nitrogen being increased while the urea 
is decreased. The urine sometimes contains sugar, acetone and 
allied bodies, and cystin, leucin or tyrosin. These effects are evi- 
dences of increased destructive metabolism with incomplete oxida- 
tion. 



CHLOROFORM 163 

The Action on the Nervous System. The action of chloro- 
form (and ether) upon the nervous system is pretty well described 
under anesthesia. The action in general is a progressive descend- 
ing paralysis of the central nervous system. The higher cortical 
functions pass through a brief period of stimulation, followed by a 
complete, but temporary, loss of function. The suspension of func- 
tion involves first the cerebral cortex and the great tracts of the sen- 
sory and associated centers, later the spinal reflexes and finally the 
great vital centers in the medulla. Death during chloroform anes- 
thesia is due to paralysis of the respiratory center unless there is a 
sudden reflex vagus stimulation and consequent stoppage of the 
heart, in the early stages of anesthesia. 

Causes of Death from Chloroform Anesthesia. 

1. Reflex stimulation of the vagus and consequent stopping of 
the heart in the early stages of anesthesia. This is usually due to 
too concentrated vapor. 

2. Paralysis of the medullary centers and paralysis of the heart. 
The respiratory center is usually affected earlier than the other cen- 
ters or the heart. It should be kept in mind, however, that there is 
no specific action upon the respiratory center but that all the centers 
are depressed and that the respiratory is the first to become paralyzed. 
These vital centers are all depressed and the weakest is the first to go. 
If the heart is diseased it may cease before the respirations stop. 

3. From a toxemia caused by degenerative changes in the inter- 
nal organs, particularly the liver, in from twelve hours up to four or 
five days after anesthesia. Cats are very prone to this form of 
poisoning. 

Therapeutics. 1. Anesthetic. Chloroform is the best agent 
for general anesthesia of the horse, but on account of its dangerous 
complications is not to be especially recommended for cattle, sheep, 
dogs and cats. 

2. Carminative. In flatulence and intestinal colic and diarrhea. 
Generally employed here as the spirit or emulsion in dilute solution. 

3. Antemetic. It may prove of considerable use in serious cases 
of vomiting in the dog and cat. For this purpose, one-half to one 
dram of the water may be given every hour. 

4. Specific for eclampsia of suckling bitches. 

5. Vermicide. Chloroform is a fairly reliable vermicide for 
round worms and is prescribed with castor oil for this purpose. 

6. Antidote to strychnine poisoning. It is particularly service- 
able in this case when the convulsions are very severe. It should be 
given by inhalation, by means of artificial respiration. It is better 
to change to ether when relaxation occurs, since ether is not so de- 
pressant to the respiratory center. 

7. For cough. Combined with belladonna and opium and pre- 
scribed with glycerin, syrup or mucilage. 



164 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

8. Externally. It is useful as a liniment for counter-irritation 
and for the relief of pain. 

Administration. For anesthesia of the horse, chloroform may be 
given by the drop or choke method. In the former, the lower nostril 
is plugged with cotton, the upper one smeared with grease, to pre- 
vent irritation of the drug, and the drug dropped upon a few layers 
of gauze held over the free (upper) nostril. In the choke method, a 
few ounces of chloroform are poured upon cotton or other absorbable 
material, this is then placed in a tight nose bag and held to the nose. 
The choke method is much the more rapid, but by many operators is 
considered more dangerous. 

Dogs may be anesthetized by the use of a hollow tin or leather 
cylinder covered with gauze over the outer opening, upon wliich the 
chloroform is dropped, or the vapor may be forced into a cone by 
forcing air over chloroform contained in a bottle. 

Cats may be anesthetized the same way as dogs or placed in a 
tight box and the chloroform placed in it upon gauze, sponge, or cot- 
ton. The last mentioned method is not particularly good, as it is 
more liable to be followed by changes in the internal organs (delayed 
poisoning). 

For internal use, chloroform should be made up in an emulsion, 
using three parts of glycerin, white of egg, and acacia, or the spirit 
may be diluted with water. 

iETHER 

Synonym. Sulphuric ether 

Ether or ethyl oxide is obtained by distilling a mixture of sul- 
phuric acid and alcohol. It occurs as a very volatile, light, colorless, 
limpid liquid, with burning unpleasant taste and a characteristic 
penetrating odor. It boils at about 35.5° C. (96° F.), is highly 
inflammable, and its vapor mixed with air is explosive. It mixes 
freely with alcohol, and chloroform, and is a solvent for resins, fats, 
oils, adhesive plaster and collodion. It is soluble in 10 parts, of 
water. 

Its principal impurities are acids, acetaldehyde and peroxides. 
Even in pure specimens, these impurities may develop in the pres- 
ence of light and air. They are removed if the vapor is passed 
through water. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Ether. H. §j— ij ; 30—60. D. ul x— lx; 0.6—4. 
Spiritus ZEtheris, Spirits of ether (32.5 per cent.). H. giij 

vj ; 90.— 180. D.. 3ss— iij ; 2.— 12. 
^Compound spirit. Hoffmann's Anodyne consists of ether 

32.5 per cent., etherial oil 2.5 per cent., alcohol 65 per 

cent. 

* Unofficial. 



ETHER 165 

External and Local Action. Since ether evaporates very 
rapidly it produces extreme cold and anesthesia. The surface to 
which it is applied is white and bloodless from constriction of the 
bloodvessels and, if applied in the form of a spray, sufficient anes- 
thesia will be produced for slight operations. If reasonable care is 
not taken in its application as a spray the skin may be frozen. If 
rubbed into the skin or if evaporation is prevented by a covering, 
ether is irritant. 

Digestive Tract. In the mouth and stomach ether has an 
action similar to alcohol and chloroform. It causes a burning sen- 
sation in the mouth and salivation, increases the gastric secretion, 
movements and dilates the blood vessels. Consequently it is a car- 
minative and may aid digestion. Soon after reaching the stomach 
it reflexly stimulates the heart, causing an increase in the rate and 
force of that organ and an increase in blood pressure, which per- 
sists for some little time. Ether is a good example of a diffusible 
or reflex stimulant. 

Circulatory System. It is a reflex heart stimulant as dis- 
cussed above. Under anesthesia, there may be a slight rise of blood 
pressure for a short time, but this soon reaches the normal condi- 
tion or goes slightly below normal. 

Respiratory System. Ether is a reflex stimulant of the res- 
piratory system at first, increasing the rate and depth of the respira- 
tions. After absorption of ordinary amounts there is no appreciable 
effect, but large amounts, as in anesthesia, depress the respiratory 
center. The usual cause of death is asphyxia from respiratory 
paralysis. 

Eye. The pupil is first dilated. In stupor it is contracted as 
in sleep; in anesthesia, mildly dilated; and in collapse, widely 
dilated. 

Elimination. This is rapid. It is mostly eliminated by the 
lungs. 

Kidneys. During anesthesia there is inhibition of the forma- 
tion of urine, due to the contracted condition of the arterioles. 
After anesthesia, diuresis takes place. Albumen and acetone are 
frequently found in the urine for two or three days after anes- 
thesia. 

Nervous System. 

Ether produces such similar results and the stages of anesthesia 
are so similar to those of chloroform that they need not be again dis- 
cussed. The following differences should be made : 

1. Chloroform is the more powerful anesthetic. 

2. Chloroform paralyzes the heart much more frequently. 

3. The above holds true for the vasomotor, and respiratory 
centers. 

4. Ether is more irritating to the bronchial mucous membrane 



166 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

and is therefore more liable to increase bronchitis in those already 
suffering with it. 

5. Ether is more liable to irritate the kidneys and those suffering 
with the various forms of acute or chronic renal disease or even renal 
insufficiency should be subjected to ether anesthesia only when it is 
administered with great caution. 

6. Ether never produces sudden reflex stimulation of the vagus 
and death in the early stages of anesthesia except in the cat. 

7. In ether the period of excitation is much prolonged and con- 
sequently there is more struggling. 

8. It must be given much more concentrated than chloroform. 

9. Since it is inflammable it must not be used around an open 
flame. 

10. Ether is the more generally used in the United States in 
human medicine and is to be preferred for small animals. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Anesthesia. Eor small animals. 

2. Circulatory and respiratory stimulant in collapse. It may be 
given subcutaneously and is a good substitute for nitroglycerin. 

3. Carminative. In flatulent colic, to relieve pain and expel 
flatus. 

4. Antispasmodic. In spasmodic colic ether relieves the spasm, 
pain, and flatulence. It is also useful in other spasmodic condi- 
tions. 

5. Anthelmintic for tapeworm. 

For spasmodic colic, Horse. 

# ^Etheris § j 

Chlorof ormi 3 ij 

Tinct. Opii 5 ij 

~K. Ft. Haustus. Give at once in a pint of cold water or, better, 
in linseed oil. 

A. C. E. MIXTURE 

Many mixtures of chloroform, ether and alcohol have been advo- 
cated to combine somewhat the strong anesthetic action of chloroform 
with the less dangerous drug, ether. Of these mixtures probably the 
above holds first rank. It is composed of alcohol one part, chloro- 
form two parts and ether three parts, by weight. 

Hobday states that for young puppies and cats this is a better 
anesthetic than either chloroform or ether alone, and he prefers giv- 
ing it to these animals by means of a special inhaler, in which the 
gas is forced out of a bottle holding the mixture. Various other pro- 
portions of these agents have been advocated by different authori- 
ties. 



ETHYL CHLORIDE 167 



OTHER GENERAL ANESTHETICS 

On account of the slow action of ether and the accidents which 
attend chloroform anesthesia, many substances have been advanced 
to replace them. Atropine and morphine, and morphine and hyo- 
scine have been given considerable trial and may do well for opera- 
tions upon the dog. See morphine scopolamine, p. 182. These 
preparations are not suitable for the other animals, because they do 
not produce the characteristic depressant action. Chloral, chlore- 
tone, etc., give nice results in laboratory animals, but since it is not 
easy to control the degree of anesthesia, they cannot take the place of 
chloroform and ether. Of all those advocated, Nitrous Oxide alone 
has been placed upon a firm base. It is exceedingly successful in 
short operations and may be administered with oxygen for longer 
ones. The others are Ethyl Chloride, Ethyl Bromide and Bromo- 
form. 

Nitrous Oxide. Laughing gas. This is a colorless gas with 
very slight odor and sweetish taste. It is not inflammable but sup- 
ports combustion in lighted objects. This gas produces anesthesia in 
from % to three minutes, but has a very short period of action and 
its use was formerly limited to short operations, such as the extrac- 
tion of teeth of human patients. More recently it has been found 
that if this gas is mixed with oxygen it may be administered over a 
long period of time and it is now used by many operators for most 
operations. Since nitrous oxide does not produce a complete relax- 
ation of the muscles, ether is sometimes used along with the above 
mixturefor this purpose. This anesthetic has not found much favor 
in veterinary practice because it is expensive, the apparatus is also 
expensive and cumbersome, and it is difficult to use because it is not 
easy to judge the condition of the blood (cyanosis) in veterinary 
patients. 

^THYLIS CHLORIDUM — ETHYL CHLORIDE 

This preparation occurs as a highly volatile and inflammable gas, 
prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on absolute alcohol. It 
condenses to a liquid at about 13° C. (55.4° E.) and is kept in 
sealed tubes under pressure. These tubes are made with a minute 
pin-hole nozzle covered with a cap or regulated with a valve, and on 
opening the valve or removing the cap, the liquid is discharged as a 
fine spray. 

Local Action. On coming in contact with the skin, it evap- 
orates very rapidly and freezes the tissues so that anesthesia of an 
instant's duration may be produced, which is sufficient for some 
slight operations. 

Systemic Action. For general anesthesia, the drug is vapor- 



168 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

ized into an inhaler. Anesthesia is produced very quickly (1 — 2 
minutes) but without total muscular relaxation, and recovery is 
almost as rapid, on account of which it is difficult to maintain anes- 
thesia for any length of time. Ethyl chloride is but little used in 
veterinary medicine and almost entirely as a local anesthetic. 

Ethyl Bromide resembles the preceding drug, but is not so 
volatile. It has been practically abandoned. 

Bromoform is not sufficiently volatile to be of use as a general 
anesthetic. 

Untoward Sequelae from Ether. 

1. Of respiratory organs. Bronchitis, pneumonia or edema of 
the lungs may take place. Miiller claims that there is greater 
danger of pneumonia if the anesthetic is repeated within a few days. 
The cause of these conditions is still in doubt, some authorities claim- 
ing that they are due to irritation and others that they are due to the 
patient catching cold. Stursburg, working upon dogs, found that if 
the ether were allowed to evaporate freely there was surface chilling 
with rise of blood pressure from reflex constriction of the internal 
arteries. This did not occur with chloroform. It was believed that 
the rapid evaporation of ether by the open method made the vapor 
very cold and this in itself might be enough to irritate the respiratory 
tract. On this account some anesthetists resort to warmed vapor. 
This point is not yet cleared up. Seelig found that the inhaled gas 
did not cool the trachea but that the rapid evaporation of the ether 
cooled the air about the patient. 

2. On kidneys. Acute nephritis and acidosis sometimes follow 
ether anesthesia. This is frequently seen in cats, even following short 
periods of anesthesia. It does not appear until after several days 
(4 — 8). The symptoms are: rise of temperature to 103° — 105° P., 
complete loss of appetite, dullness, stupor, and persistent emesis. 
The animals succumb in from 24 — 48 hours after the first symptoms 
appear. Autopsy shows acute parenchymatous degeneration of the 
liver and kidneys. The urine contains considerable acetone. 

Measures to Prevent Complications from General Anesthesia. 

1. Preliminary injection of sedatives. See Morphine scopola- 
mine p. 182. 

2. A hypodermic injection of a small dose of atropine might be 
given to stimulate the respiratory center, lessen the salivary secre- 
tion and prevent primary stimulation of the vagus. 

3. Start anesthesia in dogs with chloroform to lessen the period 
of excitement. Then continue with ether as soon as the animal 
reaches the anesthetic stage. 

4. To prevent acidosis, some recommend the administration of 



ACCIDENTS DURING ANESTHESIA 169 

sodium bicarbonate, per rectum, one-half hour before starting anes- 
thesia, but the value of this procedure is in doubt. 

Rectal or Colonic Anesthesia. Ether may be given per rec- 
tum after the bowel has been cleaned with a saline, sodium bicar- 
bonate enema. Ether vapor is then passed in through a special 
apparatus, but this method was never very popular. Another way 
to produce rectal anesthesia is to inject ether and olive oil, 1 part of 
ether to 3 parts of olive oil, after emptying the bowel with an enema. 

This method has not proved satisfactory because it was not easy 
to produce anesthesia in dogs, and cats suffered from secondary after 
effects as much as or more than when given ether by inhalation. 

Intravenous General Anesthesia. In this method the anes- 
thetic is injected intravenously. Chloroform and ether have been 
used. They are injected in dilute aqueous solution in saline or in 
blood serum. This method has not proved popular. 

Intratracheal Insufflation. This method consists of passing 
the anesthetic through a catheter inserted down near the bifurcation 
of the trachea, and passing air and vapor down by means of pressure. 
This needs preliminary anesthesia to abolish the laryngeal reflex. 
To avoid rupturing the lungs by excessive pressure, this method re- 
quires a manometer, and has not been considered as feasible for 
veterinary use. 

Treatment for Accidents During- Anesthesia. 

1. If the pulse becomes rapid and weak, withdraw the anesthetic 
and give salines. 

2. For collapse : 

A. If from ether, lower the head, raise the feet and give air. If 
from chloroform keep the body level, so as to avoid heart failure. 

B. Keep up the body warmth. 

C. Inject atropine, caffeine or camphor hypodermically. Cam- 
phor may be useful in chloroform collapse where the heart is at fault. 
Avoid alcoholic stimulants. Hobday recommends a full dose of 
hydrocyanic acid placed upon the tongue for chloroform poisoning 
in dogs. 

D. If an ether case, give hot salines per rectum or infusion with 
adrenaline. 

E. Start artificial respiration. 

E. If the heart stops, massage the organ or inject a few minims of 
tincture of digitalis and adrenaline chloride into the ventricular 
cavity and massage. 

Ether, whisky and strychnine hypodermically have repeatedly 
been shown to increase the collapse. 



170 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 



ALCOHOL — ETHYL ALCOHOL 

Synonyms. Spiritus Rectificatus Br. ; Spiritus G. ; Spiritus Vini 
Rectificatissimus, Spirit of Wine, Fr. ; Common or Grain Alcohol 

There are two kinds of alcohol, ethyl and methyl, but the latter 
is not used internally in medicine because it is an active poison. It 
will be discussed later. 

Ethyl or grain alcohol is a liquid containing 92.3 per cent, by 
weight or 94.9 per cent, by volume of alcohol and the rest of water. 
It is used in the following forms : 

Alcohol as described above. 

Alcoholum Dilutum. Diluted alcohol containing 41 per cent, by 
weight or 48 per cent, by volume of ethyl alcohol (equal volumes of 
distilled water and alcohol). 

Alcohol Dehydratum. Dehydrated alcohol, absolute alcohol, 
contains not less than 1 per cent, by weight of water. 

* Alcohol Deodoratum. Deodorized alcohol contains 92.5 per 
cent, by weight of alcohol. The odor is removed by distilling over a 
2 per cent, solution of sodium acetate. 

*Spiritus Frumenti. Whiskey, 44 — 50 per cent, of alcohol. 

* Spiritus Vini Gallici. Brandy, 39 — 47 per cent, of alcohol. 
*Vinum Album. White Wine, 10 — 14 per cent, of alcohol. 
*Vinum Bubrum. Red Wine, same strength as white wine. 

Doses. Alcohol. H. §j — ij ; 30. — 60. D. 3j — ij ; 4. — 8. 

External and Local Action. Alcohol retards fermentation in 
yeast-formed liquors when it reaches about 10 per cent, of the liquid 
and checks it completely when about 15 per cent. A mixture of 
equal parts of red wine (12 per cent.) and water has killed typhoid 
bacilli in twelve hours, which makes it very evident that alcohol is 
antiseptic. Harrington and Walker Have found solutions of about 
10 per cent, strength to have greater antiseptic properties than 
stronger ones. 

If applied to the skin and allowed to evaporate it is cooling, and 
tends to harden the skin, but if the evaporation is prevented it is an 
irritant, causing redness. It does not form vesicles. It is irritant 
to mucous membranes and raw surfaces because it abstracts water 
from them and coagulates the protoplasm, on account of which 
strong liquors should not be administered without dilution. 

Digestive Tract. Mouth. In the mouth when concentrated 
there is a burning sensation. If retained for some time the albumen 
of the superficial tissues is coagulated and the mucous membrane 
becomes whitish. The coagulum is not permanent but is soon dis- 
solved by the fluids of the tissues. Soon after the alcohol is placed 

* Unofficial. 



ALCOHOL 171 

in the mouth there is an increased flow of saliva and the pulse is 
accelerated. The latter is purely reflex, as it occurs long before the 
alcohol can be absorbed. 

Stomach. There is about the same sensation in this organ as in 
the mouth. If a small amount is given, the gastric vessels dilate, 
the mucosa becomes red and secretion increased. The result is that 
the appetite is sharpened. This may explain the custom of taking a 
" nip " before meals, and also explains how a little alcohol may aid 
digestion. The effect of large doses is quite different. The activity 
of the gastric juice is destroyed by precipitation of the pepsin. The 
walls of the stomach become inflamed, large quantities of mucus are 
poured out and if the overindulgence is continued, chronic gastritis 
results, the glands atrophy and we get the permanent dyspepsia of 
drunkards. 

Intestines. If any reaches the intestines undiluted it would be 
irritant but the chances are largely against this. The pancreatic 
juice is increased. 

Blood. Alcohol is very largely absorbed by the blood and lac- 
teals. It increases, then decreases ameboid movements of the white 
cells. It hinders the oxyhemoglobin of the red cells from giving up 
the oxygen, hence diminishes the oxidation of the tissues. This fac- 
tor, in "habitual drinkers of large amounts, may lead to imperfect 
combustion of fat, which consequently accumulates in the tissues 
and results in obesity. 

Absorption. This is rapid from the stomach and intestines. 
According to Von Noorden, 1.5 per cent, is excreted by the breath, 
Yz per cent, by the urine, and traces in the sweat. 

Temperature. Alcohol is slightly antipyretic. This action is 
probably largely due to dilatation of the cutaneous vessels. 

Summary of Action on the Circulation. The following 
effects are seen from moderate amounts : 

1. The heart beats more rapidly and forcibly. Large amounts 
directly depress the heart muscle. 

2. All vessels are dilated, especially those of the skin. 

3. Blood pressure rises. These changes are but transitory be- 
cause the stimulation is soon followed by depression and the heart 
beats more weakly and is weaker than before. 

Circulatory System. Upon the administration of concentrated 
alcoholic solutions, there is an immediate rise in blood pressure, 
though the action of the heart remains about the same. Although 
this action lasts but a very few minutes, alcohol is very valuable in 
mild forms of collapse. This action is purely reflex as it occurs 
before absorption takes place. 

Brooks, working upon unanesthetized dogs, found that while a 
striking reflex rise of blood pressure followed placing of alcohol in 
the mouth, which returned to normal in five to ten minutes, and was 



172 DEPRESSANTS TO CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 

then followed by a slow fall in pressure, that there was no rise in 
pressure when the alcohol was placed in the stomach through a 
gastric fistula, even in strengths up to 50 and 60 per cent. It is, 
therefore, probable that the reflex comes from the mouth. 

Respiratory System. Alcohol stimulates the respirations in 
some animals. This is probably due to an indirect effect of alcohol 
through its action in the stomach and not to stimulation of the res- 
piratory center. There is no stimulation in dogs and in other ani- 
mals the stimulation is so slight and uncertain as to make alcohol of 
no therapeutic value in the treatment of respiratory diseases. 

Skin. Slight diaphoretic. 

Nervous System. The action of alcohol upon the nervous sys- 
tem is similar to that of ether, but it is modified by its lessened 
volatility and slower action. Alcohol depresses first the highest cere- 
bral centers, the intellectual, then the lower, motor, etc., then the 
cerebellum, and the vital medullary centers. There may be a pri- 
mary stimulation, but this is but momentary and alcohol cannot be 
considered as a cerebral stimulant. It is a true narcotic, standing in 
this series between the anesthetics and hypnotics. 

Food and Endurance. Bastido summarizes the action as fol- 
lows : " Alcohol cannot build up tissue, but can spare or replace the 
fats and carbohydrates for a time, and can prevent excessive protein 
destruction (tissue waste) for a time. It may, therefore, serve as a 
useful food in some conditions of great exhaustion or waste, where 
the tissues would otherwise be broken down to furnish the energy to 
maintain life. But in any case alcohol cannot be a profitable food 
for any length of time, because of its central nervous effects, and 
because it causes too marked wear and tear on the body structures. 
It is probable that in most conditions, sugar will be a better food." 

Therapeutics. Externally and locally as an antiseptic for 
wounds or hands, as a refrigerant for bruises, swelling, etc. (spirits 
of camphor). To harden the skin and prevent bed sores in man. As 
a preventive of burns by phenol, it is the best remedy, as it prevents 
penetration of the phenol ; but when phenol has been swallowed, al- 
cohol may be given in the form of whiskey, but should be washed out 
because it only prevents the local action and at the same time increases 
absorption of it. As an antiseptic, see external and local action. 

Internally : 

1. Stimulant in collapse, either alone or combined with others. 

2. In septicemia, snake bites, and pyemia, and infectious dis- 
eases. 

3. Antipyretic. Increase dose given above and give every few 
hours. May be of service as food and narcotic but lowers resistance. 



METHYL ALCOHOL 173 

Horse Septicemia. 

# Strychninse Sulphatis gr. ss 

Quininse Sulphatis 3 j 

Tinct. Ferri Chloridi 3 j 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 3 jss 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. Give in six ounces of water, repeat every 3 hours, 

4. To furnish food and stimulation in depressed conditions, and 
in convalescence. 

5. Alcohol is almost universally used as a menstruum in the 
preparation of tinctures, fluid extracts, etc. It is often used as a 
liniment. 

Denatured Alcohol is grain alcohol to which something is added 
so that it cannot be used internally. 

METHYL ALCOHOL 

Synonym. Wood alcohol. 

Methyl alcohol is made by the destructive distillation of woods 
and is consequently known as " Wood Alcohol." It is also obtained 
as a by-product in the manufacture of sugar. It contains 81 per cent, 
of methylated spirit, some tarry constituents and fusel oils. It is 
duty free on account of its toxicity and is used principally in the 
arts and sciences. 

Action. Methyl alcohol acts locally and centrally like Ethyl 
alcohol, but is somewhat slower in action and the depression is more 
persistent. Two great differences between methyl and ethyl alcohol 
are that methyl alcohol is not readily excreted or oxidized, its products 
formed in the body being formic acid and formaldehyde, and it is 
believed that these substances together perhaps with acetone are 
responsible for its toxic action. 

The toxic effects are atrophy of the optic nerve with permanent 
blindness, and depression of cardiac and voluntary muscle resulting 
in death. 

Many cases of death or blindness have occurred following its use. 
Although most of these results have followed debauches with adul- 
terated spirits, many instances of blindness have come from hair 
tonics, bay rum, and other toilet preparations in which the cheaper 
liquid has been substituted. On account of this, the Health Depart- 
ment of New York City has an ordinance forbidding the use of 
methyl alcohol for any preparation for human use, either externally 
or internally. 

DRUGS AFFECTING CHIEFLY THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS 

SYSTEM 

These may be divided into : 

A. Those which depress the peripheral nerves, belladonna, 
cocaine, 



174* DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

B. Those which stimulate, pilocarpine, physostigmine and are- 
coline. 

A. DRUGS DEPRESSING THE PERIPHERAL NERVES 
BELLADONNA OR ATROPINE GROUP 

The belladonna or atropine group of drugs consists of a number of 
alkaloids of quite similar composition, which are found in a large 
number of plants belonging to the potato family or solanaceite. For- 
merly each alkaloid received a specific name according to the plant 
from which it was obtained, but more recent investigation has shown 
that this group takes in several alkaloids and that each occurs in all 
the plants, but in variable proportion. The principle members of 
this group are : 

Belladonna Stramonium 

Hyoscymus Scapola 

Similar alkaloids may also be obtained from the following plants : 
Duboisia myoporoides, and Mandrangana automnalis. 

BELLADONNA 

Synonym,. Deadly nightshade 

Parts Used. The leaves, folia, and roots, radix, of Atro pa bel- 
ladonna of central and southern Europe and western Asia and 
grown for the drug trade in England and Germany. Tradition has 
it that the drug was so named from the fact that it was used in 
early times by the ladies to produce lustre to the eyes. The term 
literally means " Beautiful Lady." 

Active Principles. Belladonna contains two alkaloids, Atro- 
pine and bellodonnine, which is identical with hyoscyamine. In 
fact, recent investigations tend to show that atropine is an artificial 
alkaloid of hyoscyamine and that the latter is the true or natural 
alkaloid. Chemically atropine is a compound of the isomers, dextro 
and levo hyoscyamine, into which it separates when dissolved in 
water, while hyoscyamine is really levo hyoscyamine and is easily 
changed to dextro hyoscyamine. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Belladonna Folia. H. 5ij — viij ; 8. — 30. D. grs. ij — v ; 

0.13—0.3. 
Tinctura Belladonna? Foliorum,. D. Tt\ v — xxx; 0.3 — 1.3. 
Fluidextractum Belladonna?, Radicis. H. 3j — ij ; 4 — 8. D. 

1uj— iij ; 0.65—0.2. 
Extractum Belladonna? Foliorum. H. gr. x — xx; 0.6 — 1.3. 

D. gr. y 8 — V 2 ; 0.008—0.03. 



BELLADONNA AND ATROPINE 175 

Linimentum Belladonna. 5 per cent, of camphor in fluid- 
extract of belladonna. 

Unguentum Belladonna. 10 per cent, of pilular extract, 5 
per cent, alcohol in hydrous wool fat 30 and benzoinated 
lard 35. 

Atropine. H. gr. %— %; 0.016—0.03. D. gr. Hoo— Ho- 

Action. The action of Belladonna depends upon that of its 
alkaloid atropine, so the two will be discussed together. 
Summary of Action. 

1. Stimulation of the nerve centers. 

2. Depression of the nerve endings. 

1. The nerve centers stimulated are the central and vital medul- 
lary and only in poisonous doses are these depressed. 

2. The nerve endings depressed are : 

a. Sensory nerve endings. There is a tendency to lessen sensa- 
tion and pain, but not to produce anesthesia. 

b. Motor nerve endings. In smooth muscles but not in striated 
or arterial muscle. There is a strong action in these muscles, tend- 
ing to allay abnormal contraction of the muscles of the viscera, 
bronchi, stomach, intestines, bile ducts, etc. 

c. Secretory nerve endings. There is a strong action on mucous, 
digestive and skin secretions. 

4. Ends of oculo-motor nerves in the eye leading to a strong and 
lasting mydriasis. 

5. Vagus nerve endings, so that the usual inhibitory control is 

lost. 

Atropine is a selective acting drug because it depresses these 
nerves, whether applied locally or given internally, while there 
is no effect upon most protoplasm. 

External and Local Action. If placed upon the unbroken 
skin, atropine has practically no effect, because it is not absorbed, 
but if it is mixed with some substance which is absorbed and rubbed 
into the skin or applied to raw surfaces it is an anodyne or anal- 
gesic, especially if pain is present, due to depression of the sensory 
nerves. It also depresses the terminations of the motor nerves of 
frogs, but this action has not been seen in mammals. 

Digestive System. Secretions. The ingestion of therapeutic 
doses causes a decrease in the secretions of saliva and mucous 
by depressing the nerve endings in the glands and, consequently 
the mouth and throat become dry. The intestinal secretions 
tend to be diminished, although the action is somewhat different 
upon the different ones. The pancreatic secretion is dependent upon 
the presence in the blood of a chemic substance, secretin, rather than 
on nerve impulses, so atropine has little or no effect upon the amount 



176 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

of its digestive elements, although it may diminish the watery ele- 
ments by depressing the vagus endings. 

The bile is but little influenced, but Bastedo says that atropine 
promotes the storing of glycogen in the liver by cutting off certain 
nerve impulses which induce the change of glycogen to sugar. It 
has on this account been recommended in diabetes and Forcheimer 
says, " in a large number of cases glycosuria, and with it acetone 
bodies have disappeared." On the other hand, Mosenthal, in careful 
studies of two diabetics, found no benefit or influence on the carbo- 
hydrate tolerance, although large doses were used. 

Peristalsis. Atropine diminishes but does not entirely suspend 
the power of the vagus over the intestines, so that the cathartic 
drugs which act by stimulation of the vagus, arecoline, eserine, etc., 
may be checked, although atropine does not check peristalsis from 
cathartics which are direct irritants to the intestinal wall. On the 
other hand, atropine diminishes the so-called " tone waves " without 
checking peristalis, and tends to overcome spasmodic contraction 
with colicky pain caused by severe irritation or excessive vagus stimu- 
lation. 

It is necessary to understand the difference between normal 
peristalsis and intestinal colic (which means any spasmodic painful 
contraction of the intestines, (griping) to understand just how the 
action of atropine upon the intestine is brought about. 

In normal peristalis, a wave of contraction precedes the stimu- 
lating body for about one inch, while the bowel relaxes below the 
stimulating body for a considerable distance. In other words 
peristalsis is a coordinated purposeful action to propel the contents 
of the intestines and bring them in contact with the digestive juices. 
If, on the other hand, instead of this rythmic coordinated wave of 
contraction and expansion, we have a spasmodic contraction upon 
some offending body, which may even be gas or preceding a body 
which cannot be moved, we have intestinal colic or cramp (gripe). 
At the same time the contents are not expelled or propelled and con- 
stipation may result. In such cases atropine may restore normal 
peristalis by checking the spasm and, as a result, stop the cramp 
and constipation. It is on account of this action that atropine is 
added to irritant cathartics, because they sometimes produce this 
kind of colic. Large doses diminish or check peristalsis. 

Circulatory System. Therapeutic or moderate doses of atro- 
pine accelerate the heart by depressing or paralyzing the terminations 
of the vagi in the heart. This action is so marked that a heart 
under the influence of atropine cannot be stopped even by strongly 
stimulating the vagus. Occasionally the heart is first slowed by 
stimulation of the vagus center before it is accelerated, bnt this is 
for but a short period and is unimportant. The force of the heart 
is also increased by direct action on heart muscle, so that there is 



BELLADONNA AND ATROPINE 177 

an increase of the output of the organ per unit of time. Blood 
pressure is raised by constriction of the splanchnic vessels, due to 
stimulation of the vasomotor center, together with acceleration of 
the heart. Simultaneously with the constriction of the vessels of 
the abdomen, those of the skin are dilated by excitation of the vaso- 
dilator center, so that the blood tends to flow from the deeper vessels 
to the more superficial parts. The dilatation of the cutaneous ves- 
sels, however, is insufficient to counteract the constriction of those of 
the abdomen, and blood pressure usually rises after therapeutic doses 
of the drug. Larger doses lower blood pressure immediately by 
action on the heart and even small doses do so sometimes. The dila- 
tation of the skin vessels is more especially seen in those of the head 
and neck, and in man a flushed face or erythematous rash is char- 
acteristic of atropine poisoning. The heart action always persists 
after respirations cease, so that heart failure is not considered as the 
cause of death. 

Respiratory System. Small and therapeutic doses stimulate 
the respiratory center and render the respirations quicker and 
deeper, thus increasing the amount of air inspired per minute. Fol- 
lowing large doses, this quickening is frequently interrupted by con- 
vulsions, w 7 hich may cause death. If respiration returns, it is 
slower and shallower during the stage of depression of the centers 
and respiratory failure is the cause of death in fatal poisoning. 
Animals are said to have recovered from six times the fatal dose if 
artificial respirations were used. In addition to the above action, 
atropine also paralyzes both the afferent and efferent vagal fibers in 
the muscular coat of the bronchi, so that this is relaxed and the secre- 
tions are not so irritating as before. The relaxation of the muscles 
of the bronchi causes these to dilate and it is probably due to this 
action that this group of drugs is so serviceable in treating heaves of 
horses. The secretions of the nose and throat are diminished. On 
account of the diminished sensation to the entire tract, together with 
the lessened secretions, cough is lessened. 

Nervous System. Small or therapeutic doses have very little 
effect, but large ones stimulate the cerebrum and may produce 
nervousness, restlessness and delirium in man and occasionally in 
animals, followed by depression and drowsiness. It is not a nar- 
cotic in therapeutic doses. Convulsions usually occur finally from 
toxic doses, probably due to asphyxia brought on by cessation of 
the respirations. 

Glands. All the secretions are diminished except the urine, 
milk and pancreatic juice. This action is due to paralysis or depres- 
sion of the nerve endings in the secreting glands. The action on 
the mammary glands is explained by Bastedo, in the following man- 
ner: These glands have the power to secrete milk even after all 
their nervous connections have been divided. Therefore, atropine, 



178 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

whicli simply cuts off the nerve influences, tends to reduce the milk, 
but cannot cause complete stoppage of it. The action is obtained 
both from external application and internal administration. The 
action upon the digestive glands and those of the respiratory system 
has been mentioned previously. The lack of influence upon the kid- 
neys is due to the fact that the secretion of these glands is not so 
dependent upon nervous influences. 

Eye. Atropine causes dilatation of the pupil, with loss of re- 
action to light, loss of power of accommodation and an increase in 
intra ocular pressure, and lessens pain. The dilatation of the pupil 
and loss of accommodation are due to paralysis of the endings of the 
oculo motor nerves, while the increase in pressure usually accom- 
panies dilatation of the pupils, because this tends to shut off the 
escape of fluid through the spaces of Fontana at the margin of the 
pupil, into the canal of Schlemm. These effects are produced from 
both the local application and general application of the drug. My- 
driasis will be produced in about one-half hour after local applica- 
tion of the drug, reach the maximum in Y> — 1 hour, and last for sev- 
eral clays. Loss of power of accommodation is not produced so 
quickly and does not last so long. 

Pain. Atropine gives moderate relief from the pain of iritis 
and other intraocular inflammations. 

With Homotropine the effect is secured more promptly, but is not 
so persistent and consequently this drug is to be preferred for diag- 
nostic purposes or for examination of the interior of the eye, while 
atropine is to be recommended when it is desired to keep the pupil 
dilated for a considerable period of time, as in iritis. 

Temperature. Therapeutic doses have no effect upon the 
temperature, but large doses frequently raise temperature, prob- 
ably on account of an increased circulation and oxygenation. Toxic 
doses lower the temperature. 

Absorption and Elimination. Atropine is rapidly absorbed. 
It is quickly eliminated by the kidneys, although some is oxidized by 
the tissues. The greater part is eliminated by the kidneys unchanged. 

Urinary Organs. The action upon the amount of urine is un- 
certain and unimportant: but in poisoning both suppression and re- 
tention have been reported. Since the drug is largely excreted un- 
changed, the urine is a dilute solution of it, and atropine will exert 
a remote local action in the urinary tract and lessen pain and spasm. 
In cases of poisoning, the urine concentrated by boiling and applied 
to the eye of an animal will dilate the pupil and hence may be 
employed as a test for poisoning. 

Therapeutics. 

1. To relax spasm and over-contracted smooth muscle. Bella- 
donna is of but little service in general convulsion or those of spinal 



BELLADONNA AND ATROPINE 179 

or central origin, but is excellent in cases of local spasm of smooth 
muscle excited by peripheral irritation. 

a. To relax spasm of the intestines. It is very useful in the 
various form of colic to overcome pain and allow the passage of the 
intestinal contents. It is frequently prescribed along with purgatives 
to lessen griping caused by them. It has been regarded as a good 
adjuvant to morphine in spasm of the intestinal muscles and was con- 
sidered as a guard against the action of morphine. However, more 
recent investigation has shown that it should be used with caution in 
combination with morphine, since the combination checks the secre- 
tions, paralyzes the bowels and may bring on a fatal termination by 
stoppage of the bowels. 

For action upon the bowel it is usually prescribed in one of the 
crude forms of the drug, the object being to produce a strong local 
action along the intestinal wall, with a slow absorption, since the 
alkaloids are absorbed too rapidly and may be absorbed from the 
stomach of some animals. 

b. To relax spasm of involuntary muscles of other organs. It is 
often of service in spasmodic contraction of the ureters due to cal- 
culi, given either internally or hypodermically. In spasmodic 
attacks of asthma due to contraction of the bronchial muscles, it is 
the best agent at our command since it relieves the bronchial spasm by 
paralyzing the motor ends of the vagi, lessens secretions, lowers the 
sensitiveness of the mucous membranes to reflexes, and stimulates the 
respiratory center. It is also useful for spasmodic attacks of cough- 
ing for the same reason. 

c. Heaves. Belladonna or one of the group will give temporary 
relief from the dyspnea of heaves and is frequently used by horse 
dealers for this purpose. Kaitsits found that these plants do not 
merely reduce the number of respirations but also abolish the double 
period and the forced character of the respirations, so that they may 
appear normal, even in advanced cases. The effect is produced in 
15 minutes and lasts about a day, but after the effect has worn off the 
dyspnea becomes more intense than previously. During the first 
hours after the administration the buccal mucosa is dry, the pupils 
dilate and do not respond to light, and the pulse is accelerated. Sub- 
cutaneous dose of atropine (0.03 — 0.05) produces the same effect but 
this comes on in a very few minutes, and only lasts from one to three 
hours. 

2. To check excessive secretions, especially of saliva in mercur- 
ialism or other cases of salivation where it is used internally ; in cases 
of excessive sweating; of bronchial and nasal mucous in bronchitis or 
coryza, especially in the free running stage. Results promptly fol- 
low its use in these conditions but since these are merely symptoms, 
the source or cause should be found and treated if possible. It is one 
of the best agents we have for checking the secretion of milk from an 



180 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

inflamed udder. Although the action upon the secretion of milk is 
not always marked its application to the gland as an ointment or lini- 
ment and its internal administration may often give surprisingly 
good results. It is of no service to veterinary medicine as an anti- 
hydrotic but is very useful in human medicine to check the night 
sweats of tuberculosis. 

3. Stimulate the vasomotor center. It is useful in shock and col- 
lapse, although less so than adrenaline, but it is particularly good in 
shock due from injury or the course of severe disease. 

4. Action upon the eye. 

1. As a mydriatic and analgesic for the following purposes: 

a. Mydriatic to facilitate the examination of the interior of the 
eye, but is inferior to euphthalmin, cocaine, or homatropine as the 
action of these drugs is less persistent. 

b. In iritis to keep the pupil dilated or to prevent or break up 
adhesions between the capsule and the lens it is superior to the above 
mentioned drugs. 

c. Analgesic. An inflammatory condition of the external or in- 
ternal parts of the eye, to give rest to the ciliary muscle, and to 
lessen pain. It is used in from % to 1 per cent, solution, but takes a 
long time for maximum dilatation but as the dilatation and paralysis 
of accommodation lasts for several days it is especially valuable for 
inflammatory conditions. 

d. In acute keratitis to allay ciliary irritation. 

5. To allay peripheral irritation. Ointments or plasters are 
useful in muscular rheumatism, lumbago, inflammations of the 
glands and joints. For this purpose belladonna is applied locally as 
the liniment, ointment or plaster or given per os for irritable bladder 
or urethra as in cystitis and urethritis. 

6. Stimulant to intestinal peristalsis. Useful for this purpose in 
combination with other drugs (purgatives) in chronic constipation. 
By allaying spasm of the muscles of the intestines it prevents griping 
from purgatives and other causes. Small doses may even prove 
laxative. 

1. To impress the nervous mechanism of the heart in tachycardia 
and nervous palpitation. 

8. To antagonize certain poisons which are heart depressants, 
causing low arterial pressure : aconite, arecoline, etc. 

9. In the secondary stages of acute febrile diseases such as bron- 
chitis and pneumonia, belladonna or atropine in combination with 
strychnine is indicated to prevent effusion, and vasomotor depression, 
and to stimulate the respirations. The drug is particularly useful in 
pUeumonia in case of collapse due to dilatation of the splanchnic 
vessels. The vascular system during the crisis of this disease is 
often found to be relaxed and cardiac stimulants do not seem to do 
much good. In this condition belladonna will increase the tone of 



HYOSCYAMUS 181 

the arterial walls and produce great improvement. A large dose 
of atropine hypodermically is the best remedy for edema of the 
lungs or threatened edema. 

10. As a preliminary to general anesthesia. In this case it is of 
service to check excessive secretions in the mouth and respiratory 
passages, to stimulate the respiratory center, and in chloroform 
anesthesia, to prevent the excessive reflex vagus stimulation at the 
onset of anesthesia. 

11. To stimulate the respiration in general anesthesia, in pneu- 
monia and collapse from narcotic drugs and to prevent respiratory 
depression, as when given with morphine. It is one of the best, if not 
the best respiratory stimulant we have. 

12. To check excessive vagus action, as in the excessive inhibition 
stage of chloroform anesthesia and in vagus brachycardia or irregu- 
larity of the heart from disease or from a drug which strongly 
stimulates the vagus, as digitalis, arecoline, eserine, etc. 

13. In anaphylaxis. Auer (1910) in experiments upon guinea 
pigs sensitized with horse serum, reported that without atropine 75 
per cent, died, and with atropine only 28 per cent. died. Hare says 
that a hypodermic dose of atropine is the best agent we have to relieve 
the symptoms of anaphylaxis after the use of antitoxin. 

HYOSCYAMUS 

Synonym. Henbane 

Parts Used. The dried leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus 
niger, a plant growing in Europe, Asia and North America. These 
parts are collected from the plants of the second year's growth and 
should yield when assayed not less than 0.08 per cent, of mydriatic 
alkaloids. 

Constituents. The active principles of hyoscyamus are two alka- 
loids, hyoscyamine, almost identical with atropine, and hyoscine, a 
distinct hypnotic. 

Official Preparations and Doses. 

Tinctura Hyoscyami. H. ^j — ii j ; 30 — 90. D. oss — iij ; 

2.— 12. 
Fluidextractum Hyoscyami or Hyoscyamus. H. oij — viij ; 

8.-32. D. TTL v— xx ; 0.3—1.3. 
Hyoscyamine or its salts. H. gr. Ys — Vi- P. gr. /4o — /4o- 
Hyoscine or its salts. H. gr. % — % ; 0.001 — 0.015. D. gr. 

Mso— Wo ; 0.0004—0.0012. 

Action. The actions in general are the same as those of bella- 
donna, but hyoscyamus is a more powerful depressant. Hyoscyamine 
resembles atropine in its action, and paralyzes the identical struc- 
tures paralyzed by it, but, according to Cushny, the action is about 



182 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

twice as strong as by atropine. The action of hyoscine or scopola- 
mine is quite different from hyoscy amine. Hyoscine depresses the 
endings of the same nerves as atropine but with a more powerful, 
prompt and less persistent action, depresses the cerebrum and pro- 
duces sleep in man without a previous period of excitement. It also 
differs from atropine and hyoscyamine in being a distinct depressant 
to the vasomotor and respiratory centers instead of stimulating them, 
and in several instances collapse has followed small doses. It is con- 
sidered as a distinct hypnotic in man. 

Therapeutics. Hyoscyamus can be used in the same class of 
cases as belladonna or atropine but is often considered superior as a 
urinary sedative in the treatment of cystitis. It may prove more 
efficient to relieve pain in colic or intestinal irritations and the griping 
of purgatives. 

Hyoscyamine. The uses of this agent are the same as those of 
atropine and belladonna but it cannot often be procured in a pure 
form and is not in any way superior to atropine. 

Hyoscine. 1. Hypnotic. Good results are procured in man in 
maniacal excitement and delirium tremens. In veterinary practice 
it is used almost entirely as a hypnotic for canine patients in com- 
bination with morphine for the relief of pain, as a preliminary to 
general anesthesia or as a general anesthetic. 

2. As a mydriatic in 1 per cent, solution. 

Scopolamine-morphine anesthesia. 

Hyoscine has been used very extensively under the name scopo- 
lamine, in combination with morphine, and it seems well to discuss it 
here. The uses of the combination are : 1, As an anesthetic, and 
2, as a preliminary to general anesthesia. 

1. As an anesthetic. In human practice about /4oo grain 
(0.0003 gm.) of scopolamine hydrobromide and Ys gr. (0.008 gm.) 
of morphine hydrobromide or sulphate, are injected hypodermically 
two and a half hours and one and one-half hours before operating, and 
will in many cases often result in the abolition of pain. This has 
been recommended by different authors in surgery and obstetrics, yet 
in a large per cent, of cases, the anesthesia has not been sufficient and 
has had to be completed with ether. This is the combination which 
has won much notoriety through the magazines as the " twilight 
sleep " in human obstetrics. By some it is considered as entirely 
safe, by others, as undesirable on account of its liability to accident, 
necessity of close attention, on account of nausea, vomiting, excite- 
ment, delirium and collapse. The dose is not given sufficiently large 
to produce sleep but to dull the memory, so that everything which 
occurs during that period is forgotten. One company adds cactin, a 
glucoside of Cactus grandiflora, to the usual mixture aiming to coun- 
teract the action of morphine upon the heart, but Hatcher and others 



STRAMONIUM 183 

have shown that cactin is not a cardiac stimulant and is consequently 
superfluous. 

In veterinary medicine the use of the above treatment is confined 
to the surgery upon the dog and it has been found that it is not neces- 
sary to give several small repeated doses, but that one full dose may 
be given at one time, thirty to forty minutes before operating, in 
which case it will frequently produce sufficient anesthesia for ordinary 
operations or may be supplemented with a small amount of ether. 
Some writers believe that the combination is superior to morphine 
alone and some think that morphine is just as good. At any rate 
there is not the decided hypnotic action seen in the domestic animals 
as in man. 

STRAMONIUM 

Synonyms. Thornapple, Jamestown or Jimson Weed 
Parts Used. The leaves and seeds of Datura Stramonium or 
Datura tatula. 

Active Constituents. Stramonium contains an alkaloid, datur- 
ine, which exists as a combination of atropine and hyoscyamine. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Stramonii (seeds). H. fil xv — ojss; 1 — 6. 

D. 1U ss— iij ; 0.03—0.2. 
Tinctura Stramonii (seeds). D. 1Tt ij — xx; 0.13 — 1.3. 
Extractum Stramonii (seeds). H. grs. v — x; 0.3 — 0.6. D, 

grs. Vs— a /i; 0.008—0.016. 
Stramonii folia. II. oss— ij ; 2.-8. J), grs. j— iv ; 0.065 — 
0.3. 

The action and uses of stramonium are practically identical with 
those of belladonna. It is especially valuable in asthma of dogs and 
heaves of horses. In the former case, the leaves may be burned in 
the room, and will often prove of much benefit. It is often preferred 
by horse dealers to belladonna for heaves in horses. For this pur- 
pose it may be combined with lobelia and followed by Fowler's Solu- 
tion of arsenic. Animals are occasionally poisoned by eating thorn- 
apple. In this case the treatment is the same as in belladonna poison- 
ing. 

" Scapola Atropoides. This drug contains hyoscyamine and sca- 
polamine, which is identical with hyoscine. The action and uses are 
similar to those of hyoscyamus, over which it has no advantages. 
The other members of the group are of no importance. 

R Aloes 3 v-viij 

Hydrargyri Chi. Mitis 3 ss 

Ext. Belladonnas grs. xx 

Pulv. Zingiberis 3 3 

Excipient q. s. 
M. Et. Bolus. Purgative for horse. 



184 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

Purgative for Dog. 

$ Aloini gr. Vg-Vk 

Cascarini gr. Vs-Va 

Podophyllini gr. 1/12-1/6 

Ext. Belladonna; gr. % 

or Atropine Sulph gr. 1/500 

Excipient q. s. 

M. Ft. Pilula. 

Cough. Horse. 

R Pulv. Belladonna? Foliorum. 

Ammonii Chloridi aa 3 j 

Camphorae 3 ss 

M. Ft. Pulveris. 

Sig. One powder two or three times daily. 

For Mastitis 

B Extracti Belladonna? Foliorum 3 ss 

Glycerini B iv 

Linimenti Saponis o vj 

M. Ft. Linimentum. 
Sig. Apply as directed. 

Heaves. 

B Liquor Potassii Arsenitis 3 xij 

Fluidextracti Lobelia? 3 ij 

Fluidextracti Stramonii 3 ij 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. One-half ounce three times daily. 

Edema of Lungs. Horse. 

R Strychninge Sulphatis. 

Atropinse Sulphatis aa gr. ss 

Aquae Destillatse q. s ad. 3 ijss 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. For hypodermic injection. 

Homatropine Bromide, U. S. P., is the bromide of an artificial 
alkaloid closely allied to atropine (tropiue). It is soluble in 5.7 
parts of water and is used entirely for its action upon the eye. Its 
chief advantage over atropine is that it is more rapid but less per- 
sistent in action and is therefore to be preferred for examination of 
the eye, but not where continuous action is desired, as in inflamma- 
tory conditions of the eye. 

Euphthalmine is an artificial alkaloid of eucaine; it is used en- 
tirely as a mydriatic. 

LOCAL ANESTHETICS 

Drugs applied locally may lessen or destroy sensibility by a 
specific action on the sensory nerves, or by intense cold produced by 
their evaporation, as in case of ether or ethyl chloride. Some drugs 



COCA AND COCAINE 185 

are also capable of producing numbness or anesthesia of the skin or 
mucous membranes when taken internally in sufficiently large doses 
(aconite). Local anesthetics are applied locally to relieve pain and 
allay itching. The following are most important : 



Cocaine Tropococaine 


Eucaine 


Orthoform 


Anesthesin Stovain 


Novocaine 


Holocaine 


Alypine Chloretone 


Urea and quinine 
hydrochloride 




and less important : 






Menthol Ether 


Ethyl chloride 




Phenol Aconite 


Veratrin 





Atropine 

Besides these many of the aromatic oils, like cloves and pepper- 
mint, also possess anodyne properties. 

*COCA 

Synonym. Cuca. 

Parts Used. The leaves of Coca erythroxylon or Erythroxylon 
truxillense yielding when assayed not less than 0.5 per cent, of its 
ether soluble alkaloids, cultivated extensively in the high altitudes of 
Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador and to some extent in Mexico and East 
and West Indies. The leaves also contain ergonine, and arygarine, 
but cocaine is the only important constituent. 

Preparations and Doses. 

*Coca or Fluidextr actum coca. H. 5ij — iv; 8. — 15. D. 
grs. or ni xx — lx; 1.3 — 3. 

Cocainse hydrochloridum (Hydrochloride of cocaine) is soluble 
in 0.4 parts of water and 2.6 of alcohol. It is insoluble in oils, there- 
fore for oily solutions the pure alkaloid should be used. Cocaine and 
its salts decompose at a temperature of about 98 C, so its aqueous 
solutions cannot be sterilized by boiling. Furthermore the solutions 
are not antiseptic and frequently show a growth of mold, but this may 
be prevented by the addition of boric acid. 

Doses. 

Cocaince hydrochloridum. H. grs. v — x. 

"Oleatum Cocaiiice, used externally only. D. grs. Vs — %. 

According to Wooldridge the maximum dose for the horse is 10 
grains. Eor dogs, /4o grain for each pound but not to exceed 2 
grains, for the cat the same ratio per pound but not to exceed % 
grain. 

Coca leaves and their preparations are employed only to a very 

* Unofficial. 



186 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

limited extent, but the alkaloid cocaine is very extensively used as a 
local anesthetic. 

External Action. Cocaine produces no action upon the un- 
broken skin because the drug is not absorbed, but if it is mixed with 
some substance which is absorbed, or is injected hypodermically or 
is in any way brought into contact with a nerve, it produces local 
anesthesia by paralyzing the sensory nerves. The part soon becomes 
pale on account of constriction of the bloodvessels. Very large 
doses may also paralyze the motor nerves. Anesthesia takes place 
in from five to ten minutes after its application and lasts for fifteen 
to thirty minutes, but may be prolonged and intensified by the 
addition of a small amount of adrenaline chloride solution, which 
constricts the bloodvessels and delays the absorption of the cocaine. 

Anesthesia may be produced if the drug is applied to any part of 
the nerve, from its ending to its posterior root : so anesthesia may be 
obtained by : 

1. Application to mucous membranes. 

2. Injection beneath mucous membranes or skin. 

3. Injection into a nerve. 

4. Injection into the spinal canal which is known as spinal anal- 
gesia, or anesthesia. The motor nerves are not so readily affected. 

Spinal Analgesia. To obtain spinal analgesia in man ~V± — % 
grain of cocaine hydrochloride in aqueous solution is injected into the 
spinal canal, the needle being inserted between the third and fourth 
lumbar vertebrae. The toes and perineum become anesthetic in about 
three to four minutes, and anesthesia rapidly ascends until it reaches 
the umbilicus, the entire body below the injection being anesthetized. 
Jonnesco has made the injections higher up in the cord, using a mix- 
ture of stovaine and strychnine. Although his reports are excellent 
the method has been abandoned in this country as unsafe. This 
method of producing analgesia in veterinary medicine has been con- 
fined to work upon the dog, but it has not gained much prominence. 

Digestive System. Taken per os, the gastric mucosa is numbed 
and the sense of hunger lessened. Small doses are said to increase 
and large doses decrease peristalsis. Those taking cocaine or coca 
can go long periods and work for several days without food and 
apparently seem to have no sensation of hunger. The drug is not a 
food, however, as the body rapidly wastes. On account of its local 
anesthetic action cocaine is frequently used to control or check nausea 
and vomiting. Very large doses tend to paralyze the bowels and 
cause constipation. 

Circulation. Probably cocaine has little direct effect upon the 
circulatory system, but the vagus is somewhat depressed and the 
pulse therefore quickened and more forceful. Large doses slow the 
heart. The effects of the drug upon this system vary greatly with 



COCAINE 187 

the dose employed. Small doses lessen the pulse rate, through stimu- 
lation of the vagus. Blood pressure is rapidly raised by stimula- 
tion of the vasomotor center, but this increased pressure is followed 
by a temporary fall. Moderate doses accelerate the heart, largely by 
depression of the vagus, both centrally and peripherally, together with 
some stimulation of the accelerator mechanism. Blood pressure is 
quickly raised on account of the action upon the heart and also on 
account of stimulation of the vasomotor center. The increased pres- 
sure may be so great in some cases as to demand treatment. Large 
doses give a very low blood pressure with a slow weak pulse, due to 
depression of the medullary centers. Occasionally an unexplained, 
almost instant collapse results in human patients after absorption, no 
matter how given. 

Its local application constricts the bloodvessels. 

Respiratory System. The respiratory center in the medulla is 
stimulated, causing an increased rate, with little or no change in the 
depth at first. Later the stimulation gives way to depression, and 
with large doses the respirations become shallow, while the rate may 
be increased still further. If convulsions result, the respiration is 
arrested, and, as after strychnine convulsions, may fail to be rein- 
stated, or there may be a gradual respiratory failure. 

Nervous System. Moderate doses strongly stimulate the higher 
parts of the brain and in the human family cause a sense of calm and 
happiness. The centers are stimulated in the same general order in 
which they are depressed by morphine, but the motor areas which are 
not depressed by morphine are actively stimulated by cocaine ; this 
results in circus movements in some animals. The stimulation is 
followed by depression of the same areas, but the stimulation and 
depression are not at all uniform, so that one usually sees evidence of 
mixed stimulation and depression of the various centers during 
cocaine poisoning. Animals have greater endurance and the in- 
creased physical energy renders possible the performance of long 
exhausting muscular feats. This is probably the reason that cocaine 
is used as a stimulant (hop) in race horses. For the stimulant and 
exhilarating effects, coca leaves are often mixed with clay or ashes and 
chewed by the natives of Peru and the surrounding countries, but an 
overindulgence leads to indigestion and extreme emaciation. Large 
or toxic doses lead to depression, loss of coordination, narcosis and 
cerebral convulsions. The sensory nerves are paralyzed and the 
motor nerves depressed by toxic amounts. 

Eye. A two to four per cent, solution causes marked irritation 
of the parts, together with a transitory contraction of the pupil, but 
this is soon followed by anesthesia of the cornea and conjunctiva and 
blanching of the mucous membrane. A few minutes later the pupil 
dilates and remains so for one or two hours, but there is not a maxi- 



188 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

mum dilatation. The pupil still responds to light, and there is 
neither paralysis of accommodation nor increase in intraocular ten- 
sion, so the effects differ from those following atropine. 

Temperature. There is no effect upon the temperature from me- 
dicinal doses, but large or toxic doses cause an elevation of temperature. 

Kidneys. There is an increased amount of urine voided but a 
decrease in the per cent, of urea. 

Absorption and Excretion. Cocaine is rapidly absorbed from 
the gastrointestinal tract and from the subcutaneous or submucous 
tissues when the local vasoconstriction has passed away or if the 
solution is too dilute to cause constriction of the vessels. It is prac- 
tically all destroyed in the body, so that there is no remote effect on 
the urinary system. 

Toxicology. The symptoms of poisoning by cocaine are quite 
variable but usually consist of excitement followed by delirium and 
finally depression, stupor, rapid pulse, hurried respirations, dilata- 
tion of the pupils, increase of body temperature and convulsions. 

According to Cushny, in the dog and cat the symptoms are in- 
variably those of stimulation of the central nervous system. The 
animals show symptoms of great restlessness and excitement soon 
after the injection ; they seem unable to keep still, the dogs at first 
showing all the signs of affection and excitement which they ordi- 
narily display on being unchained or taken for a walk, but after- 
ward running continually in a circle and paying but little attention 
to anything around them. Still later regular convulsions occur, first 
clonic, but may become tonic, and then resemble those seen in 
strychnine poisoning. Even before the convulsions occur the animals 
seem partially unconscious and in the intervals between the convul- 
sions lie in an apathetic state, which soon deepens to coma and death 
from asphyxia. 

In the horse a toxic dose of cocaine (5j) causes restlessness and 
excitement, muscular twitching and trembling, rythmical movements 
of the head, dilated pupils and salivation followed within an hour 
by a stage of acute mania and great excitement. 

Smaller doses (ordinary therapeutic ones) in certain individuals 
cause exhilaration, nervousness, excitement, dilatation of the pupils, 
twitching of the ears, and increased respirations. Race horses which 
have been stimulated with cocaine show these symptoms well and in 
addition do not cool out well. 

Treatment. This is mainly symptomatic. For circulatory and 
respiratory failure, ammonia, strychnine and atropine. In convul- 
sions chloroform or ether by inhalation, performing artificial respira- 
tion if necessary. For excitement use chloral or bromides or other 
sedative. 

Untoward Effects. These are : 

1. From protoplasmic irritation. Cloudiness and ulceration of 



COCAINE 189 

the cornea; necrotic area or sterile abscess at the point of injection. 

2. After absorption, excitement and delirium. 

3. Sudden collapse after usual doses in susceptible cases, but not 
often in animals. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Externally. Cocaine or its synthetic chemical substances or 
substitutes are the agents most generally employed for local anes- 
thesia. The operations most suitable for local anesthesia are: 

Removal of tumors Operations on eye and throat 

Tenotomies Operations on the feet 

Firing Operations on mucous 

Neurectomies membranes, etc. 

2. To dilate the pupil and is superior to atropine in many cases. 

3. To detect obscure lameness by injecting a solution over the 
nerves supplying the part and thus removing all sensation beyond the 
point of injection. 

4. Internally. It has been used as a central nervous stimulant 
in shock and collapse as in chloroform poisoning or narcotic drugs. 

5. To check nausea. Cocaine and other members of the group 
may be useful to check nausea and vomiting of cats and dogs. 

6. General anesthetic. Ritter, in 1909, obtained in dogs by 
injecting 10 mils of a 1 — 3 per cent, solution intravenously, general 
anesthesia lasting foi 15 to 30 minutes. The animals remained 
awake, but quiet and indifferent and insensitive to pain. 

7. Intravenous local anesthetic. Bier produced anesthesia in 
the limbs by placing a tourniquet above and below the point to be 
anesthetized and injecting the cocaine solution directly into the vein. 
This method is used considerably by some surgeons but has not been 
taken up by veterinarians to any extent. There is said to be some 
danger of clotting of the blood. 

8. Spinal analgesia. See p. 186. 

Strengths of Solution. A solution of from 1—2 per cent, is 
used for the relief of pain, but a stronger solution (4 per cent.) is 
required to produce complete anesthesia as in cutting operations. 
Four per cent, solutions, may be too strong for application to the eye 
except for very brief periods. 

Schleich suggested the use of solutions of different strengths (and 
with morphine without reason) for the infiltration method. This 
consists in injecting a relatively large amount — up to 200 mils (6 
fluidounces) — of a solution of 1:10,000 in physiological saline 
through a fine needle and permitting it to permeate the tissues about 
the region to be operated upon. Relatively smaller amounts of 
solutions of 1:1,000 may be used in the same way. The solu- 
tion, in human work, is injected into — not beneath — the skin at 
first, and then into the underlying tissues successively. This method 



190 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

is painful when inflammation exists, and in such cases it is preferable 
to block the nerves supplying the parts. Schleich also believes that 
the local anemia due to pressure of the large amounts of solution aids 
in decreasing sensation. He also asserts that similar injections be- 
neath the periosteum permit of operations on the bones. The anes- 
thetic lasts about twenty-five minutes. He recommends three solu- 
tions of different strengths, as follows : 

Solution 12 3 

Cocaine hydrochloride gr. iv (0.25) gr. ij (0.12) gr. % (0.012) 

Morphine hydrochloride gr. % (0.03) gr. i/ 2 (0.03) gr. Vio (0.006) 

Sodium chloride gr. iv (0.25) gr. iv (0.25). gr. iv (0.25) 

Sterilized distilled water. . . f£ iv (120) fS iv (120) IE iv (120) 

To each of these solutions 3 minims of a 5 per cent, solution of 
phenol are added. The second solution is the one most used, the 
first where acute inflammation is present and the third where it is 
necessary to use repeated injections. The effect of these injections 
may be considerably increased if adrenaline chloride in the propor- 
tion of 1 — 20,000 is added to the mixtures. This method of anes- 
thesia has been given considerable trial and may be satisfactory for 
minor operations, but is not satisfactory for deep cutting operations 
or for operations upon the nerves. 

COCAINE SUBSTITUTES 

On account of certain drawbacks to cocaine, especially its poison- 
ous nature, decomposition on sterilizing, poor keeping qualities in 
solution and occasional idiosyncrasy to the drug, several products 
have been advanced as substitutes for it. The following are the 
most important : 

Novocaine (para-aminobenzoyldiethylaminoethanol hydrochlor- 
ide) occurs as fine colorless needles that melt at 156° C, and are 
soluble in 1 part of water and about 30 parts of alcohol. Its solu- 
tions are neutral. Its aqueous solutions may be boiled without un- 
dergoing change. Toward alkalies and alkaloidal reagents it be- 
haves like alkaloidal salts. Injected subcutaneously it manifests a 
strong but transient anesthetic action but is said to be absolutely un- 
irritating. Braun combines the active principle of the suprarenal 
capsules with it to increase its action and says that so combined, it is 
as powerful as cocaine. It produces no effect upon the arterioles, 
and is not absorbed from intact mucous membranes, so is not suitable 
for operations upon the eye and throat, where dependence is placed 
upon the simple application of the drug. According to Schley, it is 
only about Vq as toxic as cocaine. 

It is used in solutions of from 0.5 to 2 per cent. Crile recom- 
mends a solution of 1 — 400 to anesthetize the field of operation be- 
fore cutting and thus prevent surgical shock to the tissues. This is, 
of course, supplementary to general anesthesia. 



NOVOCAINE — EUCAINE — STOVAINE 191 

Novocaine Nitrate (para-aminobenzoykliethylaniincethanol ni- 
trate) occurs as small colorless, odorless crystals, soluble in water and 
alcohol. It is a local anesthetic that can be used with silver nitrate 
and other silver salts without fear of precipitation. 

Eucaine (beta-eucaine or eucaine hydrochloride). This is the 
hydrochloride of trimethylbenzooxypiperidin, a synthetic product 
similar to cocaine. Formerly eucaine was also supplied as alpha- 
eucaine, but on account of its irritant properties, it was never widely 
used, and at the present time has been withdrawn from the market. 
Beta-eucaine occurs as a white powder, soluble in about 30 parts of 
cold water or alcohol. It is used as a local anesthetic like cocaine. 
Its advantages are that it is claimed to be less toxic than cocaine, solu- 
tions are more stable and may be sterilized by boiling. It has no 
effect upon the blood vessels, however, and is more liable to cause 
sloughing than cocaine. 

Stovaine is a trade name for another synthetic preparation intro- 
duced to take the place of cocaine. Chemically it is benzoylethyl- 
dimethylaminopropanol hydrochloride. It occurs as small shining 
scales which are freely soluble in water or alcohol. Its solutions 
may be sterilized by boiling without suffering decomposition but are 
incompatible with alkalies and alkaloidal reagents. Stovaine is 
claimed to be as strong an anesthetic as cocaine and less toxic. It 
dilates the blood vessels. Stovaine may be used under the same con- 
ditions as cocaine but is too irritant for application to the eye and is 
more liable to cause sloughing at the point of injection. This drug 
has come into considerable prominence to produce sublumbar (intra- 
spinal anesthesia). 

Alypine is another substitute introduced as a local anesthetic. 
It is claimed to be equally active but less toxic than cocaine, causes 
no mydriasis, nor vaso-constriction (on the contrary vaso-dilatation), 
and its solutions resist boiling for from five to ten minutes without 
decomposition. Chemically it is benzoyldimethylaminomethylclime- 
thylaminobutane hydrochloride. It occurs as a white chrystalline 
powder, freely soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform, and spar- 
ingly soluble in ether, yielding neutral solutions that may be steril- 
ized by boiling for not more than five minutes. According to some 
authorities it will not stand boiling. Alypine is mostly employed in 
2 to 4 per cent, solution. 

Alypine Nitrate is introduced as an anesthetic that may be used 
with silver nitrate without fear of decomposition. 

Quininse et Urese Hydrochloridum U. S. P. (carbamidated 
quinine dihydrochloride). This preparation occurs as white, odor- 
less, bitter crystals or white powder, soluble in about one part of 
water and freely soluble in alcohol. It contains 70 per cent, of 
quinine alkaloid. The anesthetic properties of quinine were dis- 
covered in using the drug hypodermically for malaria. It is used 



192 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

as a local anesthetic in 2 to 4 per cent, solutions by injection and in 
10 — 20 per cent, solutions for application to mucous membranes. It 
produces anesthesia much less rapidly than cocaine but on the other 
hand, the anesthesia is very persistent, lasting in some cases for 
several days. It is less toxic than cocaine and is said to be stable in 
solution. Some authorities claim that it dilates the vessels at the 
point of application. 

Holocaine Hydrochloride (phenetidylacetphenetidin hydro- 
chloride) occurs as a white, odorless, bitter powder, soluble in 50 parts 
of water and freely so in alcohol. This anesthetic is especially useful 
upon the eye. It paralyzes the sensory nerves more powerfully than 
cocaine and does not produce any necrosis. It is used in from Y* to 
1 per cent, solution and may be sterilized by boiling, but does not in- 
fluence the blood vessels. Anesthesia is produced very rapidly but is 
not lasting (produced in about one-half minute and lasts for 5 to 10 
minutes). It is extremely sensitive to alkalies, hence its solutions 
should be made in porcelain capsules and kept in porcelain containers 
or in bottles that have been previously treated with hydrochloric or 
sulphuric acid (to remove the alkali present in the glass as far as 
possible) and thoroughly rinsed in distilled water; only distilled 
water should be used in making solutions. 

Tropacocaine is obtained from the small Java Coca leaves. It 
resembles cocaine in its actions but is must less toxic and does not 
constrict the blood vessels when applied to mucous membranes or 
dilate the pupils. Its only advantages over cocaine are that it is less 
toxic and its solutions may be boiled. 

Orthoform (the methyl ester of meta-amido-para-oxy benzoic 
acid) occurs as a white, bulky, odorless, tasteless powder, slightly 
soluble in water, soluble in 6 parts of alcohol, and 50 parts of ether ; 
it dissolves readily also in collodion. It has the same action on the 
sensory nerves as cocaine but on account of its slight solubility and 
rapid excretion, toxic effects are not easily produced. On the other 
hand, if rendered soluble it is no less toxic than cocaine. It is pre- 
scribed as a local anesthetic and antiseptic in painful wounds, with 
caustics to relieve the pain, etc., in 5 to 20 per cent, ointments, paints, 
dusting powders or alone. Orthoform must be protected from the 
light, is incompatible with antipyrine, bismuth subnitrate, mercuric 
chloride, silver nitrate, zinc chloride and potassium permanganate. 

Anesthesin (para-amidobenzoic acid ethyl ester) occurs as a 
white, odorless, tasteless powder, sparingly soluble in water, but 
readily soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, fats or oils. This 
preparation has been recommended to take the place of orthoform, as 
it is claimed to be stronger and less irritant. According to some 
authorities, however, it is more toxic and consequently more liable to 
produce systemic effects from its application. Its hydrochloride is 
soluble and may be used for subcutaneous anesthesia like cocaine. 



COMPARISON OF COCAINE AND SUBSTITUTES 193 

Propesin (propyl ester of para-ami dobenzoic acid) occurs as a 
white crystalline powder sparingly soluble in water. Its uses are 
identical with those of anesthesin. 

Chloretone is a weak anesthetic and is not used to any extent for 
this purpose in veterinary medicine. 

Dionin is soluble in 7 parts of water. It is used in 5 per cent, 
solution to dilate the pupil, lessen intraocular tension and abolish 
pain in the eye. It causes irritation and chemosis at first, which 
soon disappears. On account of its irritant action it is classed as a 
corneal lymphogogue and is useful in treating opacities of the cornea. 
It may be used in 5 to 10 per cent, solutions or dionin may be dusted 
in the eye. After several days, the eye becomes immune to the drug, 
so that it must be discontinued for a time. 

Yohimbine is a local anesthetic when applied in 1 — 2 per cent, 
solution. The effects begin in 10 to 15 minutes and last % — 1% 
hours. The vessels are dilated even when used with adrenaline. 
It should not be used in the eye because it produces too much irrita- 
tion. (See aphrodisiacs.) 

Comparison of Cocaine and Its Substitutes. 

The most valuable features of cocaine are its strong, prompt and 
quite certain action. It is also the best known of the group. It 
is a vasoconstrictor, lessens hemorrhage, may be of service as a 
mydriatic, causes no local irritation, and acts on sound mucous mem- 
branes. 

The substitutes improve upon the older drug mainly by their lesser 
toxicity, do not injure the cornea, are more stable, sterilizable and 
antiseptic. Of the great number of substitutes, novocaine appears 
at the present time to be the most commendable ; its feeble toxicity 
permits large amounts to be used without inconvenience ; it has fairly 
strong anesthetic properties, is nonirritant, and not a vasodilator. 
Its only drawback is that its period of action is shorter than cocaine, 
but this can be overcome by the addition of a small amount of adren- 
aline solution. Reclus recommends the following solution : 

Normal salt solution 100 mils 

Novocaine 05 (50 centigrams) 

Adrenaline solution (1 — 1000) .... 25 drops 

The following table of relative toxicity was arrived at by the 
Therapeutic Committee of the British Medical Association. Cocaine 
is taken as the standard of comparison and is represented by 1. 

Alypine 1.25 

Cocaine 1.00 

Nirvanine 0.714 

Stovaine 0.625 

Tropococaine 0.500 

Novocaine . 0.490 

Beta-eucaine lactate 0.414 



194 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

Alypine often gives fine results in operations upon horses and is 
said to be less toxic to them, or at any rate, does not produce such 
symptoms of excitability, but it may be followed by swelling which 
may last for several days. 



OTHER MEASURES FOR PRODUCING LOCAL 
ANESTHESIA 

Atropine resembles cocaine somewhat but is much weaker in 
action, but on the other hand is more readily absorbed from the intact 
skin and may be used in liniments, ointments and plasters. 

Aconite first stimulates and then depresses the sensory nerves 
without irritation. 

Aromatic Series. Many of the members of the aromatic series 
possess an anesthetic action. This is particularly so of phenol, which 
produces marked anesthesia even in dilute solution. Its application, 
however, is often injurious, since it causes destruction of the skin and 
may be absorbed in sufficient amounts to produce toxic symptoms. 
It may be used for combined anesthetic and antiseptic action for such 
operations as hypodermic injections, paracentesis, etc., in which 
case the needle may be dipped in strong phenol, applied to the point 
of introduction for a moment, then followed by an application of 
alcohol to prevent serious destruction of tissue. All the bodies of 
this group show this double action. Acetanilid and antipyrine may 
be used as a dusting powder .for the combined anesthetic and anti- 
septic action, but their action is not strong. 

Application of Cold. This in addition to anesthetic action 
produces a local anemia. The anesthesia is complete but has the dis- 
advantage of producing pain at first and may be followed by gan- 
grene. This method of producing anesthesia is best done by spray- 
ing the surface with a highly volatile liquid, such as ethyl chloride 
or ether, but it may be produced in emergency by the application of 
salt and ice. 

CounterirritantS. These first produce stimulation and then de- 
pression of the nerves. Turpentine, menthol, camphor, alcohol, 
chloroform, and all essential oils. 

Magnesium Salts. Meltzer and Auer (1905) discovered the 
anesthetic action of the magnesium salts. They found that the ap- 
plication of magnesium sulphate to nerve-trunks blocked conductivity 
and abolished reflex excitability. They also found that a general 
anesthesia, with abolition of the reflexes, may be produced by the 
subcutaneous injection of magnesium salts (1.5 gm. of crystallized 
magnesium sulphate per Kg. of body weight used as 25 per cent, 
solution). The same effect was produced when introduced intra- 



MENTHOL 195 

venously, while the intracerebral injections produced a state of gen- 
eral inhibition. Both the intravenous and subcutaneous injections 
produced a complete muscular relaxation in tetanus, lasting often as 
long as twenty-four hours. Meltzer later used the intraspinal 
method (1 mil of a 25 per cent, solution to each 25 pounds of 
weight) for several operations and as a treatment for tetanus. In 
the latter condition, however, although the relaxation may last for as 
long as twenty-four hours, there was no effect upon the high tem- 
perature of this disease and the patients died from exhaustion, with- 
out there being any gain in the reduction of the mortality. This 
drug has never gained any prominence as a local or general anes- 
thetic in veterinary medicine and is being discarded or superseded 
by other drugs in human medicine. 

Menthol. Menthol is a stearopten obtained from oil of pepper- 
mint. It occurs in the form of colorless prismatic or acicular crys- 
tals, having a mint-like odor and taste. It is slightly soluble in 
water, but freely soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform. 

Doses. EL grs. vijss — xv; 0.5 — 1. D. gr. ss — ij ; 0.03 — 
0.13. 

Action and Uses. Menthol is a. local anesthetic and antiseptic. 
It liquefies when triturated with camphor, thymol or phenol. 

It is used as a local anesthetic or anodyne and antiseptic in dust- 
ing powders, ointments or solutions. One part of menthol to ten of 
olive oil makes a useful application to burns. Internally it is a 
carminative and analgesic. 

R Mentholi. 

Eucalyptoli aa 3 j 

Alcoholis 3 ij 

Liq. Cresolis Comp 3 v 

Aquas q. s ad. B viij 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. One-half ounce in hot water as an inhalant. 

For Pruritis. 

B Mentholi 3 j 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 5 j 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Apply to parts as necessary. 

Ointment for Pruritis. 

I£ Mentholi 3 ij 

Olei Olivse 3 j_ 

Petrolati q. s ad. % ij 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 
Sig. Apply as necessary. 



196 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 



DRUGS USED TO PARALYZE TASTE ORGANS 

There are several drugs that paralyze taste which it seems well 
to describe here. 

Gymnemic acid (from Gymnema sylvestris). Destroys bitter 
and sweet, not acid or salt. 

Eriodictyon (Yerba santa), the leaves of Eriodictyon glutinosum, 
native to California. Destroys bitter taste ; not sweet, acid or salt. 
The fluid extract is mostly used. One mil will cover the taste of 
0.012 gm. of quinine sulphate or 1.5 gm. of quassia. It is probably 
therapeutically objectionable, because it may render alkaloids in- 
soluble on account of the tannic acid it contains. Furthermore, it is 
believed that the action of bitters as such depends somewhat upon the 
bitter taste. 

MOTOR NERVE DEPRESSANTS 

A few drugs depress the peripheral nerves but are of more im- 
portance from the standpoint of toxicology than medicine. The most 
important are: 

Hydrocyanic acid 

Cyanides 

Crude drugs from which hydrocyanic acid may be obtained 

Wild Cherry and bitter almonds 

Curare 

Conium 

Gelsemium 

Lobelia 

Tobacco 

ACIDUM HYDROCYANICUM DILUTUM — DILUTE HYDRO- 
CYANIC ACID 

Diluted prussic acid is an aqueous solution containing 2 per cent, 
by weight of absolute hydrocyanic acid. It should be kept in small 
bottles well protected from light in a cool place. Scheele's hydro- 
cyanic acid contains about twice the amount of the official prep- 
aration. 

Doses. Horses and Cattle. Tt\ xx — 5j ; 1. — 4. Sheep. n\ 
x— xv ; 0.6—1. Dogs. TTL j— iij ; 0.06—0.2. 

Action. Hydrocyanic acid is a protoplasmic poison. It para- 
lyzes the sensory nerve endings, causing local anesthesia. 

Digestive System. When administered in fairly strong con- 
centration, hydrocyanic acid causes a feeling of burning in the 
mouth with a reflex increase of saliva, followed by numbness and 



HYDROCYANIC ACID 197 

anesthesia. The same numbness is produced in the stomach and 
accounts for its sedative action in nausea. 

Nervous System. The central nervous system is first stimu- 
lated and then depressed. The stimulation is especially marked in 
the medulla, so that the respiratory center, vasomotor and vagal 
centers are stimulated, resulting in an acceleration of the respiration, 
constriction of the blood vessels and slowing of the heart. The blood 
pressure rises on account of vasoconstriction in spite of the slowing 
of the heart, but soon falls on account of vasodilatation. The respir- 
ations are at first accelerated as stated above, but soon become slowed 
and shallow, death being due to asphyxia. The heart is depressed 
by large doses. Poisonous doses paralyze the central nervous system. 

Metabolism. Hydrocyanic acid enters the blood very rapidly 
and while in the circulation profoundly affects metabolism, so that 
the tissues lose their power of absorbing oxygen. Contrary to pre- 
vious belief it does not fix the oxygen more firmly to the hemo- 
globin, but the bright red color is due to the tissues which do not 
reduce the oxyhemoglobin (Dixon). 

Absorption. Hydrocyanic acid is absorbed rapidly from the 
mouth or gastrointestinal tract, and may produce symptoms within 
a few seconds after its administration. 

Toxicology. Hydrocyanic acid is one of the most rapid and 
fatal poisons. A large dose may cause death by paralysis of the car- 
diac and respiratory centers, but death is usually due to asphyxia. 

Immediately after the administration of a fatal dose to dogs, the 
animals make a few gasping respirations, may cry out, go into con- 
vulsions and die in 2 or 3 minutes from respiratory paralysis. The 
heart continues to beat for a short time after the respirations cease. 
If death is somewhat delayed, the pupils dilate, there is incoordina- 
tion, a weak pulse and convulsions. The fatal dose of diluted hydro- 
cyanic acid for dogs is 40 — 60 minims, for horses, 4 — 5 drams 
(Hoare). 

Autopsy. If an autopsy is performed quickly, the character- 
istic odor of the acid may be detected. The lesions are not constant. 
The blood may have a venous appearance if death has not taken 
place quickly, but if immediately, as after a large dose, may be 
bright red. 

Treatment. Artificial respirations should be started early. On 
account of the rapid absorption and action, the choice of antidotes is 
difficult. Central nervous stimulants (atropine, strychnine) should 
be given hypodermically. Hydrogen peroxide is said to be antidotal 
and is easily obtained. Sollmann recommends sodium thiosulphate 
(hyposulphite) 100 mils (3 ounces) of a 3 per cent, solution sub- 
cutaneously (in man) to form the harmless sulphocyanide, but the 
action of prussic acid is generally so rapid that treatment is not 
successful. 



198 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

Uses. Small doses are recommended to relieve nausea and 
vomiting in small animals. It acts through its anesthetic action and 
is not in any way superior to less dangerous remedies. It is usually 
prescribed with bismuth preparations for this action. 

Cough. Hydrocyanic acid is sometimes used to allay cough in 
dogs with asthma or other diseases. It should be given in minim 
doses, frequently, and the patient should be closely watched. Mor- 
phine and its allies are just as serviceable and safer. 

Chloroform Poisoning. Hobday recommends a full dose of 
hydrocyanic acid to be placed upon the tongue of dogs in case of acci- 
dents in chloroform anesthesia. Its benefit is probably clue to a 
strong primary stimulation of the respiratory center together with 
the few deep inspirations which occur. Other measures should be 
kept up at the same time. 

POTASSII CYANIDUM — POTASSIUM CYANIDE 

Cyanide of Potassium 
Doses. Horses, gr. j— ij ; 0.06—0.12. Dogs. gr. %; 0.01. 

Action and Uses. Potassium cyanide is converted in the 
stomach and blood to hydrocyanic acid and resembles that drug in 
action. There are no internal or external uses of this drug, although 
it is sometimes used to destroy animals. Five grains have caused 
death in a man, 60 — 120 grains in horses, and it required 9 ounces 
to kill an elephant in Central Park. 

Crude drugs from which hydrocyanic acid may be obtained : 

Prunus Virginiana — Wild Cherry. The bark contains a glu- 
coside, amygdalin, a ferment emulsin, a bitter principle and tannin. 
It does not contain prussic acid but when the glucoside amygdalin, is 
acted upon by the ferment in the presence of water, it splits up into 
hydrocyanic acid as one of the decomposition products. Thus it is 
necessary for the bark to be placed in contact with water for the 
production of the acid. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Infusum Pruni Virginiance 4 per cent. Not used. 
Syrupus Pruni Virginiance 15 per cent. D. 5j ; 4.0. 
Fluiclextractum Pruni Virginiance. D. Til xxx; 2.0. 

Oleum Amygdali Amari. Oil of bitter almonds — contains 
the same glucoside and ferment as wild cherry and forms hydro- 
cyanic acid in the same way. It is not used in veterinary medicine. 

These preparations are not valuable remedies. The different 
preparations of wild cherry have been used as tonics on account of 
the bitter principle. The syrup is quite extensively used as a vehicle 
for cough remedies, but contains so small an amount of the acid that 



CONIUM — LOBELIA 199 

it is in itself inert. Bitter almond oil is sometimes used as a 
flavor. 

It is important to note in connection with these drugs that stock 
frequently become poisoned from eating the wilted leaves of wild 
cherry, due to the formation of hydrocyanic acid during the wilting 
process. Occasionally corn and sorghum stalks cause the same 
trouble. 

CONIUM 

Conium-spotted hemlock, " not hemlock," is the full-grown fruit 
of Conium maculatum. It contains the alkaloid coniine (conine). 
Doses. 

Goniinoe Hydrobromidum. II. grs. % — 1% ; 0.05 — 0.1. D. 
gr. Yqo—Vso ; 0.001—0.002. 

Conium is a motor depressant but its only interest from a practi- 
cal standpoint is its toxicology, as animals may eat a sufficient amount 
of it to cause poisoning. The symptoms of poisoning are: dullness, 
loss of muscular power, especially of the posterior extremities, stum- 
bling or falling. Salivation, nausea, dilatation of the pupils and con- 
vulsions may occur. The pulse becomes slow and feeble, breathing 
very shallow, and the surface of the body cold. Paralysis is so com- 
plete that the animal lies as helpless as though dead. In doubtful 
cases of poisoning, urine from a suspected animal may be injected 
into frogs and if the case is one of conium poisoning, the frogs will 
be afflicted in the same manner. 

Treatment. Evacuate the stomach, administer tannic acid as 
the antidote, start artificial respiration, administer nerve stimulants 
(strychnine, etc.), keep the animal warm. 

CURARE 

Curare, a resinous extract containing the alkaloid, curarine, 
is a South American arrow poison, probably derived from various 
species of strychnos of South America. 

Curare has no action when administered per os on account of 
its rapid elimination, but if it enters the circulatory system, through 
an open wound or from subcutaneous injection, it paralyzes the motor 
end plates in all striated muscle except the heart. It is not used in 
medicine. 

LOBELIA 

Synonym. Indian Tobacco 

Lobelia is the dried leaves and tops of Lobelia inflatus. It con- 
tains a volatile liquid alkaloid, " lobeline," and resembles nicotine or 
tobacco in action. * 



200 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Lobelice. H. 5j — viij ; 4. — 30. D. n"L ss — 

xx ; 0.03—1.3. 
Tinctura Lobelice. H. 5j — ij 5 30. — 60. D. TI\, iij — xxx ; 

0.2—1.3. 

Action and Uses. Lobelia resembles nicotine and coniine 
in action, and causes death by respiratory paralysis. Lobelia is a 
strong gastric irritant and consequently is emetic. It depresses the 
peripheral vagus, like coniine, and relaxes the bronchioles. On ac- 
count of its nauseant action it is an expectorant. Lobelia may be 
useful in asthma of dogs and heaves of horses and is frequently 
combined with belladonna in these cases. Some recommend 10 or 15 
drops of the tincture every few minutes until vomition occurs in 
asthma of dogs. It acts in the above conditions probably by dilating 
the bronchioles. Lobelia is often prescribed as a sedative expector- 
ant. The alkaloid lobeline has been recommended in the treatment 
of tetanus, but the results from its use are not encouraging. 



GELSEMIUM 

Synonym. Yellow Jasmine 

Gelsemium is the roots of Gelsemium sempervirens. It contains 
two alkaloids, gelseminine, which forms amorphous salts and upon 
which the action of the crude drug depends, and gelsemine, which in 
large doses increases the spinal reflexes and later paralyzes the motor 
nerve endings. Commercial gelsemine is a mixture of both alkaloids 
but closely resembles gelseminine in action. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Gelsemii. EL 5j — ij ; 4. — 8. D. m\ v — x; 

0.3—0.6. 
Tinctura Gelsemii. PL §ss — j ; 15. — 30. D. Til xv — 5j ; 

1.— 4. 

Action and Uses. Gelsemium has an action similar to conium, 
but produces death by paralyzing the respiratory center instead of 
the peripheral nerve endings (Dixon). 

Large doses accelerate the heart by paralysis of the vagus. When 
applied directly to the eye, gelsemium or its alkaloids dilate the 
pupils and paralyze the power of accommodation, much the same as 
atropine, but they cause some pain and the action is not as complete or 
as persistent. Gelsemium and its alkaloid gelseminine (gr. ss, every 
half hour) have been recommended in the treatment for spinal men- 
ingitis and tetanus, but there are probably no therapeutic indications 
for the draff that cannot be better treated with other agents. 



TOBACUM — TOBACCO 201 



TOBACUM — TOBACCO 

Tobacco is the leaves of Nicotiana tobacwm, subjected to a process 
of fermentation to remove certain proteins and fats that make the 
smoke disagreeable and then to a second fermentation during which a 
considerable amount of nicotine is lost and aroma developed. It con- 
tains a liquid, oily, volatile alkaloid nicotine, allied alkaloids and a 
volatile oil, to which its aroma is due. 

Action. Tobacco has an action similar to conium, but has less 
effect upon the motor nerve endings. Its most important action is 
upon the sympathetic nerve cells which are at first stimulated, then 
depressed and finally paralyzed (Dixon). 

Externally and Locally. Tobacco is an antiseptic and para- 
siticide. 

Digestive System. Tobacco or nicotine is a gastrointestinal 
irritant. It increases the secretion of saliva from irritation of the 
drug in the mouth. It causes nausea, vomiting and increased peri- 
stalsis either from direct irritation or after absorption. Toxic doses 
cause the usual symptoms of gastro-enteritis. 

Circulatory System. The heart is first slowed through stimula- 
tion of the vagus center and ganglia and then accelerated through de- 
pression of the vagus center and stimulation of the sympathetic 
ganglia. The final result is always an acceleration of the pulse due 
to a lack of inhibition. Blood pressure is increased for a short time 
on account of stimulation of the vasoconstrictor center and intense 
stimulation of the cells of the sympathetic ganglia, but is soon fol- 
lowed by a fall in pressure, due to a depression of the same struc- 
tures. All these actions finally result in vasodilation, fall of blood 
pressure and acceleration of the heart. 

Respiratory System. The respiratory center is first stimu- 
lated, then depressed and finally paralyzed by large doses. 

Nervous System. Nicotine first stimulates the central nervous 
system, but this soon gives way to depression. There is no marked 
action upon the brain. Its action upon the medulla is shown through 
its action upon the various centers. These are first stimulated and 
then depressed. The cord is not so strongly influenced as the medulla 
but there is a transitory stimulation of the reflex centers, causing 
twitching, convulsions, etc., soon giving way to depression and, in 
toxic doses, paralysis. All sympathetic ganglia are briefly stimu- 
lated, then depressed. 

Eye. The action of nicotine upOn the pupils is not constant. In 
the dog and cat it is dilated for a brief period, constricted in the 
rabbit and in man constricted at first, then followed by dilatation. 
The difference probably depends upon whether the sympathetic 
(dilator) or occulomotor (constrictor) ganglia are affected. 

Glands. The secretions from the salivarv, sweat and bronchial 



202 DEPRESSANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

glands are at first increased due to action upon the ganglion cells in 
secretory nerves. Large doses stop all secretions through paralysis of 
the same ganglia. 

Absorption and Excretion. Nicotine is rapidly absorbed. 
Sufficient may be absorbed from the skin to produce toxic symtoms in 
some animals. It is largely excreted through the kidneys, although 
some is probably thrown off through the sweat and other glands, and 
some is probably destroyed in the tissues. 

Toxicology. Nicotine is one of our strongest poisons. Two 
drops placed on the tongue or rubbed into the gums of a small dog or 
cat will cause death in a minute or two, 10 drops have killed a large 
mastiff almost immediately. The fatal dose for horses is given at 10 
drops of nicotine or % pound of tobacco. 

When taken per os nicotine causes irritation to the mouth, throat 
and stomach with pain, nausea, vomiting (in some animals) and 
purging. Tremors and clonic spasms of the muscles occur followed 
by depression and paralysis. The respirations are slow and weak, 
pulse rapid. The animal may go into collapse. 

Treatment. Evacuate the stomach and administer cardiac and 
respiratory stimulants hypodermically, strychnine, alcohol, atropine, 
and administer tannic acid per os as the chemical antidote. 

Uses. Tobacco is not a very useful therapeutic agent. Its 
greatest use is probably as a parasiticide in mange of animals, espe- 
cially sheep scab, although it is a very efficient parasiticide for lice, 
fleas, etc., of the large animals. As it is absorbed from the skin, 
larger amounts than can be given per os should not be applied. For 
mange of sheep and other animals, it is used in decoctions (2 — 5 per 
cent.) to which a definite amount of caustic potash or soda and car- 
bolic acid have been added. The Prussian Government recommends 
the following: Boil 7% kilograms of native grown tobacco with 50 
liters of water for one half hour, strain, add 1 kilogram of liquid car- 
bolic acid, and 1 kilogram of caustic potash and enough water to 
make the mixture measure 250 liters. Use at a temperature of 35° C. 
and the sheep should be kept in for two minutes. Then work the 
surface of the body for two minutes more, after taking from the dip. 

Law's dip is as follows: Tobacco 16 pounds, oil of tar 3 pints, 
soda ash 20 pounds, soft soap 4 pounds, water 50 gallons. Sufficient 
for 50 sheep. Steep the tobacco for one-half hour, strain and add 
the other ingredients at 70° F. 

Tobacco is not used internally in this country, but has been used 
in Germany as a ruminatorium for cattle in doses of 2 ounces (30.0 
gm.) with one-half pound of salt and one pound of Glauber's salts. 

SPARTEINE 

Sparteine is obtained from Cytisus scoparius, or broom tops. It 
resembles coniine in action but is much less toxic. It differs from 



PHYSOSTIGMINE — ESERINE 203 

coniine in having but little action upon the central nervous system. 
Large doses paralyze the sympathetic nerves and the end plates of 
motor nerves. It causes death by paralyzing the nerve endings of the 
phrenics. Sparteine is more fully discussed under diuretics. See 
p. 295. 

B. PERIPHERAL NERVE STIMULANTS 

This group is made up of a few drugs which act almost exactly 
opposite to atropine. The chief members are 

Physostigma Pilocarpus Arecoline 



PHYSOSTIGMA 

Synonyms. Calabar Bean, Ordeal Bean 

Parts Used. The ripe seed of Physostigma venenosum, yielding 
when assayed, not less than 0.15 per cent, of the alkaloids of physos- 
tigma. The plant is indigenous to western Africa, and the beans 
were used by the medicine men for " trial by ordeal," hence the name 
" Ordeal Bean." The person accused of crime was given a paste 
made of the seeds ; if he survived, he was considered innocent ; if he 
died he was guilty. Tradition says that the priests " could be fixed " 
for a consideration, so that they would mistake harmless seeds for 
the true ones in making the paste. 

Constituents. Physostigma contains the following alkaloids: 
physostigmine or eserine, which is the principal one; calabarine, to 
which it owes its tetanizing power; and eseridine, a laxative and 
motor excitant. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Extractum Physostigmatis. H. gr. iij — viij ; 0.2 — 0.5. D. 

gr. Yio— %; 0.006— 0.03. 
Tinctura Physostigmatis, 15 per cent. H. 5ij — vj ; 8. — 25. 

D. TTtij — xx ; 0.13 — 1.3. 

Physostigmine salicylate and physostigmine sulphate are the salts 
used. The former is soluble in 72 parts of water and 13, of alcohol; 
the latter is deliquescent and freely soluble in water and alcohol. 
Physostigmine or its salts decompose by light, heat and air, so that 
they are not suitable for hypodermic tablets, but should be purchased 
in hermetically sealed tubes. Solutions of this alkaloid turn a red- 
dish purple color which indicates deterioration. The salicylate is 
more stable than the sulphate. 

Physostigmince Sulphas or Salicylas. H. gr. ss — iij ; 0.03 — 
0.2. D. gr. Koo— %o; 0.006— .002. 



204 STIMULANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

Action. Eserine or physostigmine stimulates the secretory 
nerve endings of glands and of smooth and striated muscles. It, 
therefore, antagonizes the action of atropine upon secretions, the eye, 
and upon smooth muscle. It also antagonizes the action of curare on 
striated muscle. Eserine does not affect sensory nerve endings. 

External and Local Action. There is no action except when 
applied to the eye. 

Digestive System. Eserine stimulates the nerve endings in 
the muscles of the bowels and probably the muscle itself and pro- 
duces severe peristalsis. It also stimulates the glands and increases 
the secretion of saliva, gastric juice, and intestinal secretions, but is 
not used as a stimulant to secretions because by constricting the 
arterioles and cutting off the blood supply, the secretion is limited. 
The peristalsis is not a regular one, but consists of a fixed tetanic ring 
(spasm) which causes griping. 

Nervous System. The higher cerebral centers are not affected, 
since consciousness remains to the end. The vital medullary centers 
are first stimulated, then depressed. The reflexes are depressed, and 
in poisoning there may be ascending paralysis beginning in the 
extremities. 

Respiratory System. Small doses may stimulate the respira- 
tions, but they are not usually affected. Larger doses depress the 
respiratory center, stimulate the endings of the pulmonary vagi and 
constrict the caliber of the bronchial tubes to a dangerous extent 
(dyspnea). The breathing is retarded with large doses, the effect 
being more marked upon this system than upon the circulation. 
Death is usually due to paralysis of the respiratory center. 

Eye. When applied locally or given internally physostigmine 
contracts the pupils, causes spasm of accommodation and lowers intra- 
ocular tension. These actions are mainly due to the stimulation of 
the ocular motor endings in the iris and ciliary muscle and stimulation 
of the muscles themselves. The effects of eserine can be counteracted 
by atropine and vice versa ; but the latter requires large doses and is 
not so easily accomplished. 

Circulation. Small therapeutic doses do not affect the circula- 
tion. Moderate doses slow and strengthen the heart probably by 
direct action on the cardiac muscle. Although the effect of the drug 
on the heart has not been well worked out, it appears that the 
heart is depressed under large or toxic doses. Moderate doses pro- 
duce a marked increase in blood pressure on account of constriction of 
the arteries from direct stimulation of the arterial muscles and 
partly by driving the blood from the splanchnic area by constricting 
the intestines. In toxic doses the rise in blood pressure is soon fol- 
lowed by a fall due to paralysis of the vasomotor center and weak 
heart. The heart is finally stopped in diastole. 

Secretions. All secretions, especially the sweat, tears, saliva, 



PHYSOSTIGMINE — ESERINE 205 

mucus, pancreatic and bile, are increased by stimulation of the 
nerve endings in the glands. This action may be counteracted by 
atropine. 

Unstriped Muscle. Eserine tends to cause contractions of the 
unstriped muscle of the uterus, intestines, bladder, ureters and 
bronchi. 

Toxicology. The symptoms are: muscular weakness without 
loss of consciousness, contracted pupils, diarrhea, vomiting. The 
heart is first slow and the blood pressure good, later the heart is 
weak and pressure lowered. The respirations are first rapid and 
deep, then become shallow and labored. (Cases of heaves particu- 
larly show great dyspnea.) 




Fig. 18. 

Blood pressure tracing. Cow. Effect of eserine upon the heart. (Tracing 

made by Dr. P. A. Fish.) 

Treatment. Atropine is the best antidote for respiratory and 
digestive symptoms. But treat collapse if necessary. 

Therapeutics. 

1. As a myotic. For this purpose it is employed in % to 1 per 
cent, solution to counteract the action of atropine, or alternately with 
atropine to break up and prevent adhesions of the iris. 

2. Stimulate involuntary muscle, as in impaction of the bowels 
to produce peristalsis. Usually given with pilocarpine to help 
stimulate secretions. 

Colic. Horse. 

IJ Physostigminae Sulphatis grs. j 

Pilocarpine Hydrochloridi grs. iij 

Aquse q. s ad. 3 j 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. For hypodermic injection. 

Physostigmine is also useful in atonic conditions of the stomach 
and bowels and chronic intestinal catarrh in small repeated doses. 

Contraindications. 

1. In impactions and overdistentions of the stomach and intes- 



206 STIMULANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

tines with undigested food on account of the liability to rupture the 
walls by the violent peristalsis. It is used by some, however, in 
these cases with reported good results. 

2. In spasmodic colic, because it increases the convulsive con- 
tractions of the bowels, consequently the pain is increased. There 
may be some danger of causing twist of the bowels, according to some 
authorities. 

3. In pregnant animals there is danger of producing abortion. 

4. In tympanies and chronic indigestion in cattle, eserine is not 
recommended by some, though it is usually considered a safe and 
efficient remedy in acute tympany. 

PILOCARPUS 

Synonym. Jaborandi 

Parts Used. The leaflets of Pilocarpus Jaborandi or of Pilo- 
carpus microphallus yielding when assayed not less than 0.6 per cent. 
of alkaloids of pilocarpus. It is a shrub of Brazil. 

Constituents. The leaves contain the alkaloids, pilocarpine, iso- 
pilocarpine, pilocarpidine, with similar action, and jaborine, which 
has an atropine-like action but is in too minute a quantity to have any 
effect. The first is the only one of importance. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluid extr actum Pilocarpi. H. oij — iv ; 8 — 16. D. Tl\ v — 

5j ; 0.3—4. 
Pilocarpines Tlydrocliloridum, soluble in water and alcohol. 

H. grs. j— v; 0.65—0.3. D. grs. Ko— Vs 5 0.006—0.02. 
Pilocarpines Nitras, soluble in water, less so in alcohol. 

Doses. — Same as of the hydrochloride. 

Action. Pilocarpine antagonizes the action of atropine upon the 
ends of the secretory nerves, ends of nerves in plain muscle, ends of 
vagi and end of the third muscle in the internal eye. It does not 
affect the sensory nerve endings or the striated muscles or their nerve 
endings. 

Digestive System. There is stimulation of all those structures 
depressed by atropine. Thus there is an increase in the secretions of 
saliva, gastric juice and probably intestinal juices, due to stimulation 
of the secretory nerve endings in the glands involved. Smooth muscle 
is not so easily affected except after large doses, in which case peri- 
stalsis is increased by stimulation of the nerve endings in the smooth 
muscles of the digestive tract. In large doses it serves as a rapid- 
acting cathartic. 

Nervous System. There is no effect in moderate doses except 
stimulation of the peripheral nerve endings. Large doses act simi- 
larly to eserine. 

Muscles. Pilocarpine contracts most of the plain muscles of the 



PILOCARPUS — PILOCARPINE 207 

bodv on account of stimulation of their motor nerve endings. Thus 
we have contraction of the plain muscles of the digestive tract, blad- 
der, bronchi and ciliary muscle. 

Circulation. The effects of the drug on this system are complex 
and vary somewhat on the different species of animals. The primary 
effect of the drug is to stimulate the cardiac terminations of the vagus 
and slow the heart. This is followed by paralysis of the vagus with 
rapid pulse from large doses. Later the heart becomes depressed 
o-iving a slow, weak pulse, due to weakness of that organ and depres- 
sion of the vasomotor center. Finally the heart is paralyzed. Alter 
toxic doses the arterioles are dilated by depression of the vasomotor 
center and blood pressure falls. 

Pilocarpine must therefore be regarded as a cardiac depressant, 
acting both upon the vagus and directly upon the heart, and in exces- 
sive doses is a vasodilator. Its margin of safety is small and it 
should not be used in cardiac weakness. 

Respiratory System. The secretions of the bronchi are in- 
creased • the bronchi are contracted on account of stimulation of their 
nerve endings. On account of these actions the breathing in poison- 
ing may be labored or asthmatic. Horses affected with heaves have 
dyspnea after moderate doses. On account of these factors, together 
with a weak circulation, death may take place from edema of the 
lungs, asphyxia or collapse. 

Temperature. The temperature may be lowered it protuse 
sweating takes place. This is especially so in febrile conditions. _ 

Secretions. Besides the secretions mentioned above, pilocarpine 
increases the secretion of mucus, tears and sweat. In man there is a 
verv profuse secretion of sweat but this is not seen m the lower ani- 
mals In the horse the skin may become moist, but the salivary secre- 
tion is very profuse. It will take place in from 5 to 10 minutes alter 
the hypodermic administration of a therapeutic dose and persists lor 
y 2 to 2 hours. Salivation is accompanied by clamping of the jaws 
and movements of the tongue. . 

Hair. The hair sometimes increases after local application or 
internal administration of pilocarpine. . 

Eye. Applied locally pilocarpine contracts the pupil by stimula- 
tion of the endings of the oculomotor nerve in the iris and lessens 
intraocular pressure. The eye is fixed in accommodation lor near 
objects. 

Therapeutics. 

1. To increase secretions of the gastrointestinal tract, combined 
with eserine, as in obstinate constipation or impactions m horses or 

2." Direct antidote to atropine and should be given in doses four 
times as great as the atropine. 



208 STIMULANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

3. May be substituted for eseriue for action on the eye (% per 
cent. ) . 

4. Diaphoretic. 

5. To remove waste matter from the blood and in cardiac dropsy. 
It is not very effective in these conditions of the lower animals, be- 
cause the secretion of sweat is not greatly increased as in man. 

6. The fluid extract is added to hair tonics to stimulate the 
growth of hair. 

Contraindications. 

1. It should not be given to animals suffering with heart or lung 
disease. 

2. In colic where the heart is weak. 

3. It is contraindicated in pharyngitis or tetanus because the ani- 
mal cannot swallow easily and may drown in the saliva. 

4. May produce abortion in pregnancy. 

ARECOLINE HYDRO BROMIDUM 

Arecoline is the most important alkaloid of Areca Nut. See 
p. 279. 

Doses. Horse and Cow. gr. ss — jss ; 0.03—0.07 subcutem. 
Repeated once or twice at 15 — 30 minute intervals. Dog. 
Vi2— 1 gr. ; 0.005—0.065 per os. 

Externally and Locally. There is no action. 

Digestive System. It is a strong stimulant to peristalsis and 
secretions, combining the action of eserine and pilocarpine. Feces 
are discharged in from 15 to 30 minutes after its administration. 
Arecoline is a much stronger sialagogue for the horse than pilocar- 
pine. Salivation is noticed about 5 minutes after its subcutaneous 
injection, reaches its height in about 30 minutes, and continues to 
flow for about one hour. During this period the horse champs his 
jaws and appears as though greatly annoyed by the excessive secre- 
tion, which is so profuse that at times it may run from the mouth in 
large quantities. The secretions from the intestines are also 
increased. 

Arecoline increases peristalsis by stimulating the nerve centers in 
the plain muscle of the intestines. This is not simply an increase in 
the normal movements of the intestines but consists of a firm tetanic 
contraction. This strong peristalsis causes a mild degree of colic 
throughout the period of action of the drug and in cases already 
suffering from abdominal pain the symptoms are always aggravated 
for a short time. It is necessary to keep this action in mind, as it 
always occurs but is not sufficient cause for alarm. 

Anthelmintic Action. There is some difference of opinion as 



ARECOLINE HYDROBROMIDE 



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210 STIMULANTS TO PERIPHERAL NERVES 

to its anthelmintic properties. Some claim that it is a vermicide for 
both tape and round worms and recommend it per os for dogs affected 
by these parasites. I have injected a solution of the drug into a loop 
of the intestines and after several minutes found living tapeworms in 
the loop. It frequently expels worms, however, but whether this is 
due to active peristalsis or direct action upon the parasites is not 
clear. 

Respiratory System. Moderate doses slow the respirations by 
stimulating the vagus. The caliber of the bronchi is reduced by 
stimulation of the nerve endings of their plain muscles. Dyspnea 
results and is particularly marked if the animal is affected with 
heaves or other respiratory trouble. In such cases the symptoms may 
be dangerously aggravated. Large doses produce death by respira- 
tory paralysis. 

Circulatory System. Arecoline is a distinct depressant to the 
circulatory system. Moderate or therapeutic doses slow the pulse by 
stimulation of the vagus and lower blood pressure. Toxic doses 
produce arythmia of the heart, great fall in blood pressure and ac- 
celeration of the heart. The last mentioned condition is due to vagus 
paralysis. The heart usually continues to beat after the respirations 
cease. 

Secretions. These are in general increased, due to a stimula- 
tion of the nerve endings in the glands. The sweat, urine, nasal and 
bronchial secretions are increased together with those of the digestive 
tract. 

Eye. Local applications are followed by an increase of tears, 
spasm of the lids and some hyperemia of the bulb. This is soon fol- 
lowed by a constriction of the pupil, which begins in about 5 minutes 
after its application, reaches its minimum in 10 minutes and after 
about 10 more begins to dilate and returns to normal in about 70 
minutes. This action is not seen after the internal use of the drug 
and in the dog I have seen widely dilated pupils from large sub- 
cutaneous doses. 

Toxicology. Frohner gives the toxic dose for the horse at 3 — 4 
grains- and the fatal dose at 7% grains, but the author had one horse 
recover from 10 grains. In this case, however, antidotal doses of 
atropine were given immediately after salivation began. In a few 
experiments made upon dogs it appeared that after previous injec- 
tions of small doses, the fatal dose was thereby apparently increased. 

The symptoms of poisoning are : sl,ow, weak pulse ; marked fall in 
blood pressure, marked salivation, cyanosis, sweating, slowed and 
shallow respirations and dyspnea and collapse with a fast arythmic 
pulse. The antidote is atropine, which paralyzes those structures 
stimulated by arecoline. This should be given subcutaneously. 
Atropine should not be administered with arecoline, because in this 
case the period of action of arecoline is too short to be of any benefit. 



ARECOLINE HYDROBROMIDE 



211 



Therapeutics. 1. As a cathartic for all those conditions in 
horses requiring a rapid evacuation of the bowels: colic, impactions, 
etc. It is often useful to stimulate contractions of the rumen in 
cattle. It is equal if not superior to eserine or pilocarpine or a com- 
bination of these drugs for this purpose. It can be given in small 
doses repeated once or twice at 15 to 30 minute intervals. 

2. As a specific for laminitis in the horse. In this disease it has 
given especially good results. The animals are usually able to return 




Fig. 20. Arecoline and Atropine. 
Horse. The short tracing to the left is the normal. The left vertical arrow 
shows when the arecoline was injected. Note the fall in blood pressure. 
The second vertical shows when the atropine sulphate was injected. Note 
the rise of blood pressure and more rapid heart beat. (Tracing made by 
Dr. P. A. Fish.) 



to work much sooner than under any other treatment. It should be 
given in daily doses or twice daily (morning and night) of Y /-i — 1 
grain along with other treatment. 

3. In azoturia. Some clinicians report good results from the use 
of this drug in azoturia. It is not to be regarded as a specific but as 
a rapid eliminant or cathartic. Other treatment should not be 
neglected. 

4. Myotic. Solutions of % to 1 per cent, may be used as a myotic 
to counteract the action of atropine or to use alternately with atro- 
pine in iritis to prevent or break up adhesions of the iris. It may 



212 MYDRIATICS 

be used as a substitute for eserine or pilocarpine for these conditions. 
Contraindications. Arecoline is contraindicated in old debili- 
tated animals, those with a weak heart, in nervous (spasmodic) colic, 
pharyngitis, diseases of the lespiratory tract and in pregnancy. It 
should be administered to cattle with caution. 



MYDRIATICS 

Mydriatics are agents which dilate the pupil. The size of the 
pupil is regulated by two sets of muscles in the iris, circular which 
contract the pupil and radiating, which dilate it. The circular 
muscle is supplied with the third cranial nerve and the radiating by a 
branch of the sympathetic. Mydriasis may be brought about in any 
of the following ways : 

1. Stimulation of the sympathetic center. 

2. Stimulation of the peripheral fibers of the sympathetic in the 
radiating muscle. 

3. Stimulation of the radiating muscle itself. 

4. Paralysis of the oculomotor center. 

5. Paralysis of the endings of the oculomotor nerve in the circular 
muscle. 

6. Paralysis of the circular muscle itself. 

Mydriatics interfere with the power of accommodation by a paresis 
of the ciliary muscle. Atropine, hyoscyamine and hyoscine are most 
powerful in this respect, while cocaine and euphthalmine are least so. 
Intra-ocular tension is increased, probably on account of the narrow- 
ing of the angle between the iris and cornea, thus hindering the es- 
cape of the humor through the canal of Schlemm or by blocking the 
efferent lymph vessels. Cocaine and euphthalmine are least active in 
this respect. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Facilitate examination of the interior of the eye. 

2. Paralyze accommodation in examination for refractive errors 
in human medicine. 

3. Prevent and break down adhesions of the iris. 

4. Rest the iris. 

5. Enlarge field of vision, where there is nuclear cataract with 
clear periphery of the lens. 

6. Allay irritation in inflammation of the cornea. 
The most important mydriatics are: 

Atropine Hyoscyamine 

Iiomatropine Cocaine 

Methylatropin (Eumydrin) Euphthalmine 
Ilyoscyine or Scapolomine 



HOMOTROPINE — METHYL ATROPINE 213 

Atropine. Atropine causes mydriasis by paralyzing the nerve 
endings of the oculomotor nerve and destroys accommodation by 
paralysis of the nerve ends in the ciliary muscle. Intraocular ten- 
sion is also increased. With a solution of 4 gr. to 1 ounce of water 
(practically 1 per cent.), mydriasis will begin in from 15 to 20 
minutes, reach its maximum in one-half hour, and persist for 8 to 10 
days. Loss of accommodation is not produced so quickly and is less 
persistent than mydriasis. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Atropine may be used as a simple mydriatic for examination 
of the interior of the eye, but for this purpose euphthalmine, cocaine 
and homatropine are just as serviceable and less disagreeable because 
their action is less persistent. 

2. It is valuable to paralyze accommodation for refractive work 
fin man), but others of less persistent action are often preferred. 

3. It is unequaled in iritis to break down and prevent adhesions 
between the capsule and lens. 

4. It is useful in acute keratitis to allay ciliary irritation. 
Strengths of Solution. As a mydriatic use one fourth grain 

to ounce of water, in iritis four grains to the ounce and keratitis one- 
half grain to the ounce. 

Homatropine. This is an artificial alkaloid of atropine. The 
hydrobromide is the salt most used and is freely soluble in water. 

Its action is similar to atropine but does not last more than two 
or three days. Stronger solutions are required than in the case of 
atropine, a solution of 8 to 12 grains to the ounce being required to 
paralyze accommodation. For examination of the interior of the eye 
a solution of one-half grain to the ounce is sufficient. Homatropine 
is expensive and rarely used in veterinary medicine. 

Methyl Atropine or eumydrin is similar in action to atropine 
but is less toxic, more prompt and less persistent. Used in 1 to 2 
per cent, solution. 

Hyoscyamine. Very similar to atropine but less persistent. 
Use 2 grains to the ounce. 

Hyoscine or Scapolamine is more powerful and less persistent 
than atropine. 

Cocaine Hydrochloride. A four per cent, solution will pro- 
duce complete anesthesia and mydriasis in 15 minutes. The my- 
driasis will reach its maximum in about one hour and last for 10 to 
12 hours. The action is due to peripheral origin. Accommodation 
is but slightly impaired. On account of its prompt and short action, 
and because it so slightly disturbs accommodation, it is very suitable 
for examination of the interior of the eye. In cases of iritis, how- 
ever, atropine is to be recommended for just the opposite reasons. 
Cocaine mydriasis may be easily overcome by a one per cent, solu- 



214 MYOTICS 

tion of eserine. It is used in 4 per cent, solution. Stronger solu- 
tions are said to irritate the cornea. 

Euphthalmine. This is a synthetic alkaloid derived from B. 
Eucaine. It is soluble in cold water, staple in solution and may be 
sterilized by boiling. After the installation of a few drops of a 4 
per cent, solution, mydriasis takes place in a few minutes, reaches 
its maximum in one-half hour, and lasts but a few hours. Accommo- 
dation is not affected to any great extent. This drug is not irritant 
to the cornea or conjunctiva, causes no systemic disturbances, but 
does increase intraocular pressure. Since it interferes with accommo- 
dation so slightly, it is recommended for examination of the interior 
of the eye. A 4 to 6 per cent, solution is usually employed. 

MYOTICS 

Myotics are drugs that contract the pupil. Myosis or contrac- 
tion of the pupil may be produced by conditions exactly opposite to 
those of mydriasis. Pilocarpine and eserine applied locally contract 
the pupil by stimulation of the circular muscle of the iris, or by 
stimulation of the peripheral endings of the oculomotor nerve in this 
muscle. Myotics lessen intraocular pressure by bringing about con- 
ditions exactly opposite to those produced by the action of mydriatics. 
Strong solutions of the myotics may bring about spasm of the iris. 
Most important of myotics are : 

Physostigmine Pilocarpine Arecoline 

Physostigmine and Pilocarpine (Physostigmine or eserine) is 
the one used most. A solution of one-eighth to one grain to the 
ounce of water is sufficient for mild continuous action, but stronger 
solutions (2 to 3 gr. to the ounce) are required where prompt action 
is needed. Eserine produces its maximum effect in less than an 
hour (30 to 40 minutes) and may persist several days. It is not 
staple in solution or in tablet form. This is its chief disadvantage. 
Pilocarpine is similar in action to eserine but weaker. Usually em- 
ployed in solution of 1 to 4 grains to the ounce. 

Arecoline Hydrobromide. This is a powerful myotic applied 
locally, but causes mydriasis if given internally. Myosis starts 
within a few minutes and is complete in about 15 minutes after in- 
stallation of a few drops of a solution of 2 to 5 grains to the ounce. 
It may also produce spasm of the iris. Its chief advantage is that 
solutions are staple. In comparison to eserine its action is more 
prompt but less persistent. 



CHAPTER XI 
SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

1. STOMACHICS — BITTERS 

Stomachics are drugs used to increase the appetite and promote 
the functional activity of the stomach. They are characterized by a 
markedly sharp taste, either bitter or aromatic. If a bitter also con- 
tains a volatile oil or a resinous aromatic principle, it is called an 
" aromatic bitter," while if it contains tannin, it is called an " astrin- 
gent bitter." The following are the more important members of 
the different groups : 

Simple Aromatic Astringent 

Gentian Calamus Cinchona 

Quassia Aurantii Amari Cor- Cascarilla 

Calumba tex Serpentaria 

Taraxacum Absinthum Condurando 

Nux Vomica Humulus Cimicifuga 

Chirata Panax (Genseng) Cuspariae Cortex 

It is not definitely known how bitters produce their action upon 
the stomach, although it is probably due to a peculiar irritation of 
the gastric mucosa, producing a reflex flow of all the digestive 
fluids together with a hyperemia of the mucosa and increase in peri- 
stalsis. The increased appetite is probably due to a stimulation of 
the nerve endings in the taste buds involved in the sensation of hunger 
(gustatory). With the exception of mix vomica and chinchona, bit- 
ters have no direct action beyond the digestive tract. 

General Uses. 

1. To modify or improve the taste of food or medicine. 

2. To stimulate the appetite. 

3. To increase digestion in atonic conditions when the stomach is 
not irritable. 

4. Antemetic. 

Contraindications. In all conditions where there is marked 
irritability or hyperemia of the stomach. If the appetite is normal,, 
bitters may not increase but lessen it. 

Administration. The best results are obtained by giving bitters 
in liquid form % hour before feeding. It has been shown by experi- 
mentation on the dog that an increased action of the organs is 
obtained from bitters in from 20 minutes to /4 hour after administra- 

215 



216 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

tion, while their immediate action is not marked. Other investi- 
gators claim that there is no action from hitters and that their use 
is very much overestimated. The tannin of the astringent bitters 
may be useful in catarrhal conditions and subacute or chronic in- 
flammations, but in most cases it is not so. Furthermore the astrin- 
gent bitters are not compatible with preparations of iron because they 
contain tannin. 

GENTIANA — GENTIAN 

Gentian is the root of Gentiana lutea. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Gentiance. H. and C. 5 SS — J 5 1^ — 30. 
Sheep and Swine, 5j — ij ; 4. — 8. D. Tl\ v — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 

Gentiana. Same as the fluidextract. 

Tinctura Gentiance. Not used in large animals. Dogs. 3j 
— iv; 4.— 15. 

Tinctura Gentiance Compositce. Same dose as for the tinc- 
ture. 

Action and Uses. Gentian is a simple bitter and has no action 
beyond the digestive tract. It is probably the most reliable and most 
used bitter for the large animals. It is indicated in convalescence 
from febrile disease and in other conditions where a bitter tonic is 
desired. Since it contains but a small amount of tannin it may be 
and frequently is prescribed with iron as a tonic for large animals. 

Tonic for Horses and Cattle. 

R Gentianse 3 iv 

Nucis Vomicae 3 iv 

Sodii Bicarbonatis 3 iv 

Zingiberis 3 iv 

M. Ft. Pulveres No. 8. 

Sig. One, three times daily on feed. 

QUASSIA 

Quassia is the wood of a tree Picrasma excelsa. 
Preparations and Doses. 

*Extractum Quasslce. H. 5j — ij ; 4. — 8. D. gr. j — iij ; 0.03 

—0.2. 
* Fluidextractum Quassice. H. 5j— ij ; 30 — 60. D. n\ xv — 

lx; 1—4. 
Tinctura Quassice. H. ij — iv ; 60 — 120. D. 5ss — ij ; 2 — 8. 
Quassiin (a bitter principle). H. Not used. D. gr Vs — Vz) 

0.008—0.02. 

Action and Uses. Besides having the action of a bitter, quassia 
is a vermicide for seat or pin worms. It is used in the same class 
* Unofficial. 



GASTRIC ANTACIDS 217 

of conditions as gentian for its bitter action and an infusion is used 
as an enema to remove oxyures or pin worms. Quassia does not 
contain tannin and may therefore be prescribed with preparations of 
iron. The infusion (5ij — O.j) injected into the previously emptied 
rectum is one of the best agents to remove the different oxyures. 

Nux Vomica. This is of more use than the other bitters be- 
cause it has a decided stimulant or tonic action upon peristalsis. 
It is very useful in chronic indigestion and loss of appetite accom- 
panied by but little irritation. 

Cinchona and Quinine. These are general tonics as well as 
bitters. During convalescence the best preparation of cinchona is 
probably the compound tincture. Indigestion from exhaustion is 
frequently benefited by a combination of quinine and nux vomica 
as in the following prescription: 

Tonic for Dogs. 

R Quininse Sulphatis gr. x 

Ferri Sulphatis Exsiccati gr. xx 

Ext. Nucis Vomicae gr. ij 

M. Eiant Pilulae No. 20. 

Sig. One after each meal. 

The other members mentioned in the group have no decided ad- 
vantage over those discussed. They are: 

Taraxacum — Dandelion. 

Xanthoxylon — Prickly ash. 

Cascarilla. 

Serpentaria — Virginia snake root. 

Cimicifuga — Black snake root. 

Calamus — Sweet flag. 

Ilumulus — Hops. 

Aurantii Amari Cortex — Bitter orange peel. 

There are also many more which might be included in the list 
but they are not used to any extent in Veterinary Medicine. 

2. GASTRIC ANTACIDS 

These are drugs used to neutralize the acidity of the contents 
of the stomach. Some of them, like sodium bicarbonate, have an ad- 
ditional property of neutralizing the urine, while others have no 
such action. These agents are used 1. To neutralize the organic 
acids; lactic, butyric and acetic, caused by the fermentation of food 
stuff and which cause eructations and gastralgia. 2. To lessen 
acidity in hyperchlorhydria (excess of gastric hydrochloric acid) and 
3. Antidote for acid poisons. 

It was formerly believed that the administration of alkalies and 
the alkaline carbonates before meals stimulated the secretion of the 



218 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

gastric juice, but this has been proven erroneous and their only use 
is to neutralize hyperacidity, dissolve mucus and stimulate the 
stomach. The following are the most important : 

Sodium Bicarbonate Magnesium Carbonate 

Liquor Calcis (lime water) Calcium Carbonate 

Magnesium Oxide Ammonia 

Sodium Bicarbonate. This is indicated in disorders of the 
stomach to neutralize or counteract acids formed by fermentation 
of food or an excess of hydrochloric acid. It often produces good 
results in mild forms of indigestion when administered with a bitter 
and carminative before feeding or at the time of feeding. It is 
also useful as a gastric sedative in combination with one of the 
bismuth preparations in gastric catarrh. 

Liquor Calcis. (Lime water) is very serviceable in prolonged 
vomiting due to excess acidity, also in chronic gastric catarrh with 
increased secretion of mucus. In this condition it may be used as a 
stomach wash (lavage) in small animals. It is frequently added to 
milk for calves and puppies to prevent the formation of large masses 
of casein in animals fed exclusively on milk. For this purpose it is 
used in the proportion of one part of lime water to four of milk. It 
is also serviceable in cases of irritable stomachs of dogs with hyper- 
acidity, associated with vomiting. 

Calcium Carbonate. (Common chalk). This is a bland ant- 
acid and feeble astringent. It is often employed in diarrheas for its 
protective, antacid and astringent effect, as follows: 

Astringent for Cattle. 

B Cretse Prsep 3 iv 

Tincturse Opii 3 v 

Tincturse Catechu 3 v 

Spts. Chloroformi 3 v 

Aquae q. s ad.O. j 

M. Ft. Mistura. 

Sig. Shake and give 4 ounces three times daily in a pint of flour 
gruel. 

Magnesium Oxidum. Calcined magnesia. There are two 
forms of this drug, the heavy and light magnesia. They are used 
chiefly as antacids and laxatives in young animals or as anti- 
dotes to arsenic poisoning either alone or in combination with iron 
in the official arsenic antidote, Ferri Hydratum cum Magnesii Oxido. 

Magnesium Carbonate. Similar to above. May be combined 
with Magnesium sulphate with good effect as in 

R Magnesii Carbonatis gr. x 

Magnesii Sulphatis 3 j 

Aquae Mentha? Piperita? 3 j 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Give at one dose as a laxative for a small dog. 



PEPSIN — PANCREATIN 219 

3. DIGESTIVE FERMENTS 

The digestive ferments used in medicine are : 
Pepsin Taka Diastase 

Pancreatin Papain 

Kennin Inglnvm 

Diastase Secretin 

Hormonal 

PEPSINUM — PEPSIN 

This is an enzyme usually obtained from the fresh mucous mem- 
brane of the hogVstomach. It is almost entirely soluble m 50 parts 
of water and more so in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid. 
It acts in a weakly acid medium to change the insoluble proteins 
of the food into soluble proteins. According to Sollmann, it is de- 
stroyed by 0.02 per cent, of ^ T aOH and is inhibited by strong acids. 
The U S P. requires it to digest 3000 times its weight of coagulated 
egg protein at 125.6 °F. in 2% hours in solutions of water contain- 
ing one part of absolute hydrochloric acid in 3000 of water. It 
regularly contains some rennin, so will coagulate milk. 

Frohner advises the use of hydrochloric acid and pepsin m case 
either is indicated on account of the inability to ascertain which is 
needed in animals. He further states that they can be used in the 
treatment of all diseases of the stomach and disturbances of diges- 
tion in the course of febrile and general diseases with the exception 
of rarely occurring gastric ulcer in calves. In veterinary practice 
hydrochloric acid is more frequently used alone. 

Doses. 

Pepsinum. Horses. 5 j — ijss ; 5—10. Dogs. grs. jss— xv; 
0.1 — 1. Swine, grs. xxx — lx; 2 — 4. 

PANCREATINUM — PANCREATIN 

Pancreatin is usually obtained from the fresh pancreas of the hog 
or ox It contains the specific ferments of the pancreas and repre- 
sents its external secretion but there is no evidence that it represents 
its internal secretion and it has no power to check pancreatic dia- 
betes Its most notable actions are those of its enzymes, trypsin, 
amylopsin and steapsin. It acts best in an alkaline medium. 

In regard to its protein and starch digesting power, the U. S. P. 
specifies that 1 grain of pancreatin with 5 grains of sodium bicar- 
bonate must be able to peptonize completely 3 ounces of cow s milk 
at 100 4 °P., in 30 minutes. It further specifies that this amount 
of pancreatin (1 gr.) must be able to change 25 times its weight ot 



220 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

starch into substances soluble in water, i.e., into dextrose, maltose, 
etc. 

FERMENTS NOT OF VERY GREAT USE IN MEDICINE 

Renilin is not a digestant but a milk coagulating ferment ob- 
tained from the mucous membrance of the fourth stomach of calves. 
It is used extensively in cheese making. 

Diastase is the starch digesting agent of barley malt, changing 
hydrolized or cooked starch into dextrine and maltose. 

Taka-diastase is a ferment with diastatic properties obtained 
from a mould, Aspergillus oryzce, which grows upon rice in Japan. 

Papain is an enzyme obtained from the juice of the unripe fruit 
of Carica papaya, a South American papaw plant. It can digest 
albumen in an acid neutral or alkaline medium but works best in a 
slightly acid one. It has no indications. 

Ingluvin is the dried lining membrane of the chicken's crop. 
Its digestive power is not very great. It has no therapeutic value 
in veterinary medicine but has been used empirically in vomiting 
of pregnancy in women. 

Secretin is unstaple and is therefore of no use. 

Hormonal is a preparation from the spleen of rabbits. It is 
said to contain the same peristaltic harmone as the gastric mucous 
membrane. 

Since there is a tendency for the different ferments to destroy 
one another, mixtures of them, especially those acting in different 
media, are theoretically irrational. 

OLEUM MORRHU^ 

Synonym. Cod Liver Oil 

Cod liver oil is a fixed oil obtained from the fresh livers of various 
species of cod. Cod liver oil was formerly obtained by allowing the 
livers to decompose and collecting the oil set free. It is a pale 
yellow, thin, oily liquid, having a peculiar fishy, but not rancid odor, 
and a fishy taste. It is slightly soluble in alcohol, soluble in ether 
and chloroform. 

Doses. Horses §ij — iv ; 60 — 120. D. 5j — ij ; 4 — 8. Twice 
daily. 

Cod liver oil must be regarded as a food and not a medicine. 
It is believed to be the most assimilable of fats. It increases weight 
and the condition of the patient generally. Large doses may cause 
nausea and diarrhea. Cod liver oil is especially useful in the treat- 
ment of malnutrition and during convalescence from febrile diseases. 
It has long been a popular drug in the treatment of tuberculosis of 
man and is valuable in the treatment of rickets of small animals. 



CARMINATIVES 221 

Administration. There are several preparations of cod liver 
oil on the market that may be used. Many of these, however, are 
combined with hypophosphites which are very disagreeable and con- 
sidered worthless by many pharmacologists. 

The official emulsion is probably as good as any of the numerous 
commercial preparations. Cod liver oil is usually given two or 
three times daily. 

Rachitis. 

fy Olei Phosphoratae 3 j 

Olei Moirhua? q. s ad 3 x 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Teaspoonful for small dogs or pigs. Tablespoonful for large 
ones, once daily. 

4. CARMINATIVES 

Carminatives are drugs that relieve pain by causing the ex- 
pulsion of gas from the stomach or intestines. The usual cause 
of gas is the fermentation of food stuff. The excessive amount of 
gas distends the organ, and causes spasm of its muscular coats to- 
gether with severe pain. The exact method of action of this class of 
drugs is not known, although numerous theories have been advanced. 
They probably act in the main by relaxing the spasm of the viscus 
especially at the orifices, allowing the gas to escape. To a certain 
extent they are irritants, causing an increase in the blood supply 
to the stomach and intestines and stimulating the movements of these 
organs. In addition they probably have some antiseptic or antifer- 
ment action, and serve as stomachics by increasing the activity of the 
glands. They are also of some use to allay spasm from other irri- 
tants than gas, as in colicky pains due to irritant foods or medicines. 
They are frequently prescribed with purgatives to prevent the grip- 
ing from these agents. They should be avoided if inflammation has 
taken place. 

With few exceptions, ether, chloroform, alcohol, they depend 
almost entirely upon a volatile oil, or a resin, for their action. The 
following are the most important : 

Capsicum 

Ginger 

Turpentine 

Piper 

Peppermint 

Spearmint 

Cardamom 

Administration. Usually by mouth. Turpentine and asafoed- 
ita may be of considerable service in enemata. 



Nutmeg 


Fennel 


Cinnamon 


Coriander 


Anise 


Asafoedita 


Pimenta 


Ether 


Sassafras 


Comp. Spts. Ether 


Caraway 


Chloroform 


Cloves 


Alcohol 



SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

CAPSICUM 

8y?ionyms. Cayenne Pepper, Red Pepper 

Parts Used. The fruit of Capsicum frutescens, a small shrub 
of tropical countries. Its active principle is Capsaicin. 
Preparations and Doses: 

Capsicum. LL and C. grs. xx — lx; 1.3 — 4. D. grs. j — viij ; 

0.06—0.5. 
Fluid extra ctum Capsici. LL Tt\ xx — lx; 1.3 — 4. D. 1TL 

j— viij; 0.06—0.5. 
Oleoresina Capsici. II. TTL x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. D. TIX x 4 — j; 

0.016—0.06. 
Tinctura Capsici. LL 5 ij — iv ; 8. — 15. D. TTL v — xxx; 

0.3—2. 

Action. Externally and locally capsicum, is a sharp irritant 
producing burning, redness and even vesication. Its irritant action 
is much more prolonged and severe than mustard. Internally there 
is no effect except upon the gastro-intestinal canal. In therapeutic 
doses it produces a feeling of burning in the mouth and warmth to 
the stomach, stimulates peristalsis and aids in the expulsion of flatus. 
Large doses cause severe inflammation of the gastro-intestinal and 
genito-urinary tracts accompanied by vomiting and purging and 
scanty high colored urine. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Externally. As a counterirritant, it is not used so much as 
mustard because it is more powerful and the action is more pro- 
longed. 

2. Internally. As a carminative. It should always be well di- 
luted as it is very irritant to the mouth. 

Piper Nigra (Black Pepper). This is similar in action and 
uses to the above but is much weaker. 

ZINGIBER 

Synonym. Ginger 

Parts Used. The rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, an herb grow- 
ing in the tropics. It contains a volatile oil and an oleoresin. 
Official Preparations and Doses. 

Zingiber. H. 3ij — gj ; 8.— 30. Sh. & Sw. 5 j— ij ; 4.-8. 

D. gr. v— xv ; 0.3—1. 

Fluidextractum Zingiberis. H. 3ij — §j ; 8. — 30. D. TTL 

v— xv; 0.3—1. 



ZINGIBER — GINGER 223 

Tinctura Zingiberis. H. 5J — ij ; 30. — 60. D. VC\, x— lx; 

0.6—4. 

Oleoresina Zingiberis. H. gr. x— xx; 0.6 — 1.3. D. gr. ss — 

j ; 0.03—0.06. 

Action and Uses. Ginger is principally used as a carminative' 
and flavoring agent. It is often combined with bicarbonate of soda 
and bitters in atonic indigestion of horses and ruminants. It is also 
used simply as a carminative to expel flatus and is frequently admin- 
istered with purgatives to prevent the griping of those agents, as is 
the case of aloes and magnesium sulphate. 

Other Carminatives. The other carminatives belong to the 
volatile oil series and will be discussed later. Besides being carmina- 
tive they are antiseptic and to some extent anesthetic. They in- 
clude turpentine, oils of peppermint, spearmint, cloves, anise, sassa- 
fras, etc. Besides the above certain drugs are used for their flavoring 
power such as caraway, fennel, coriander, foenugreck. Ginger and 
capsicum are probably more used than any of the other carminatives 
with the possible exception of turpentine. 

Turpentine. See p. 301. This agent is valuable in acute gas- 
tric tympany and flatulent colic to expel gas, arrest fermentation, and 
consequently relieve pain, also in tympanites of cattle. In either 
case it should be combined with an ammonia preparation and given 
with a full dose of linseed oil or it may be administered in a capsule. 
It is also an anthelmintic for round or tapeworms. For the former 
it should be combined with linseed oil and for the latter, with male 
fern (Hoare). It is contraindicated in congestion of the kidneys, 
nephritis, gastritis or enteritis. 

Externally it is rubifacient, vesicant or pustulant according to 
s+rength and method of application. Used chiefly in liniments and 
blisters. 

Tympany, horse or cow. 

$ 01. Terebinthinse 5 ij-iv 

Spts. Ammonite Arom * ij-iv 

01. Mentha? Piperita? § j 

01. Lini q. s ad. O. j 

M. Ft. Haustus. Give at once. 

Round Worms, adult dog. 

$ 01. Chenopodii § 3 

01. Terebinthina? 3 i. 

Chloroformi 3 " 

01. Ricini 5 xiv 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. One-half to two drams in an equal amount of castor oil. 

Hoare. 

Mentha Piperita — peppermint: is a valuable carminative in 
colic and flatulence. Externally, it is a good antiseptic. 



224 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

Mentha Virides — spearmint : Similar to peppermint. 

Cardamon. This is practically valueless except as an agreeable 
vehicle. 

01. Cloves. This action is similar to oil of peppermint except 
that this oil has an additional action as a local anesthetic. It is used 
in human practice for this purpose in toothache. Cinnamon is sim- 
ilar to oil of cloves, but is slightly astringent. 

01. Cajaputi. This is a serviceable, but little used, carminative. 
It is very useful combined with opium in diarrhea. Externally, it 
has been used with considerable value as a rubifacient in muscular 
rheumatism and as a parasiticide for ring worm. 

See group of volatile oils for details of actions and uses of these 



drugs. 



5. EMETICS 



Vomiting consists of a reflex upward emptying of the stomach 
produced by a forceful contraction of its walls and compression of 
the abdominal muscles and diaphragm, accompanied by a simultaneous 
opening of the cardia and closure of the pylorus. If the pylorus is 
opened the effort results in a retch. Emesis is usually preceded by 
nausea and retching. The muscular walls of the stomach are impor- 
tant but not necessary since the stomach may be replaced with a 
bladder filled with water and emesis then takes place. The nerves 
involved are the vagi which conduct afferent impulses to the center 
and the phrenics, spinal nerves and vagi which conduct efferent im- 
pulses to the muscles involved. 

Emetics are divided into local, topical or indirect ; and general, 
central or direct. The direct emetics act upon the vomiting center 
directly and the indirect act on the center indirectly through an 
irritation of the sensory nerve endings in the stomach. The exact 
method of action is not easy to determine since drugs may be given 
intravenously and act on the center directly or they may be elimin- 
ated through the stomach and act on the center indirectly ; or if given 
per os, they may irritate the stomach and cause emesis indirectly or 
they may be absorbed, carried to the brain and act directly upon the 
center. 

Usually, however, if a drug produces emesis more promptly when 
given subcutaneosusly than by the mouth and causes emesis after the 
stomach has been replaced with a bladder filled with water, or after 
the arterial supply of .the stomach has been cut off by ligature, it is 
assumed that the action is direct or central. Apomorphine acts 
purely centrally while copper sulphate, yellow sulphate of mercury, 
mustard, etc., are purely of peripheral or indirect action. 

The number of emetics is very large. In fact anything that ir- 
ritates the lining of the alimentary canal, especially the stomach, 
may act as a local emetic. Even water in sufficient quantity and es- 



USES OF EMETICS 225 

pecially if hike warm may serve this purpose and on this account it is 
frequently used as an adjuvant to other more powerful agents. 

Although it is impossible to group emetics with exactness, the fol- 
lowing classification may be made: 

A. Local Emetics. Reflex. This group includes all the salts 
and especially the metallic ones: zinc and copper sulphate, tartar 
emetic, ammonium carbonate, alum, ipecac, senega, mustard. 

B. General or Direct: Apomorphine. 

Uses of Emetics. 

1. To produce the nauseant stage. 

2. To produce emesis. 

1. (a) The nauseant stage is used principally in the treatment 
of inflammatory conditions of the respiratory tract, to increase the 
secretions or remove them, especially the mucous secretions from the 
air' passages. They are useful when the secretions are scanty or 
thick and difficult to remove and are given in small doses repeated 
every two or three hours. 

This is the only practical use of emetics in solipeds and other 
large animals, as horses do not vomit and cattle are not very sus- 
ceptible to them. However, they are occasionally used in cattle prac- 
tice to stimulate contractions of the rumen and even to cause emesis. 

(b) In licking disease of cattle, wool eating in sheep, feather 
pulling in fowls and other cases of depraved appetites, emetics may 
be useful. 

2. (a) To remove irritant food or poisons from the stomach. 

(b) To expel foreign bodies, false membranes or excessive secre- 
tions from the upper air passages. 

(c) To expel mucus and bile from the gall ducts in catarrhal 
jaundice by causing pressure on the liver. There is considerable 
doubt in regard to the efficacy of this treatment as the intestines are 
compressed and an overdistended liver might be ruptured. 

Contraindications. 

1. Advanced pregnancy: abortion may be produced. 

2. Very weak animals. 

3. Hernia : may aggravate condition or tendency toward hernia. 

4. Ulcers and inflammation of stomach. 

5. Retention of urine : may rupture bladder. 

6. Caustic poisoning: may rupture the weakened walls. 
Methods of Producing Emesis. 1. Tickling the fauces with a 

feather or running the finger down the throat is not usually effective 
when the stomach is normal but may be sufficient if it is irritable. A 
large draft of hike warm water may serve as an emetic in cases of 
irritable stomach but this is usually employed as an adjuvant to 
other emetics like mustard. (Mustard and water.) 



226 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

2. A tablespoonful of mustard in a cup of warm water may act a 
little more vigorously than the preceding but is slow and unreliable 
but may be used in cases of emergency. 

3. Alkalies. Any neutral salt in concentrated solution may act 
as an emetic by irritating the stomach. They are slow and uncer- 
tain of action, and with the exception of the ammonium salts which 
have a stimulating action, thus counteracting the depression which 
attends nausea, have no advantage. These ammonium salts should be 
used whenever further depression is dangerous. Ammonium carbon- 
ate is too slow for poisoning but is indicated in catarrhal conditions 
since it has additional value in dissolving the mucus. Ten to 20 
grains may be given in solution frequently repeated until vomition 
takes place. 

4. Metallic Salts. Most important and effective are : antimony 
and potassium tartrate, zinc and copper sulphate and alum. 

Tartar emetic is quite slow, may be somewhat absorbed and is then 
very depressing. Copper and zinc sulphate are identical in action 
although the copper salt is to be preferred. They both irritate the 
stomach in some specific manner and reflexly start vomiting before 
the gastric wall has undergone any perceptible change. They are 
not absorbed so long as the mucosa of the stomach is intact and are 
consequently quite safe. They produce quick action and are accom- 
panied by but little depression or nausea. They usually cause some 
irritation to the mucosa and on this account should be used to re- 
move toxic material which is not irritating to the stomach. They 
should be strictly avoided when there is reason to believe the mucosa 
is injured since they would then be rapidly absorbed and cause poison- 
ing. Their only advantages over apomorphine are: 1. that they 
are always available, 2. produce but little depression and nausea. 
In poisoning by phosphorus copper sulphate is especially indicated 
if any phosphorus remains in the stomach since metallic copper is 
precipitated, over the globules of phosphorus, quickly changing to 
the insoluble phosphide of copper. Used in 1 per cent, solution 
(about 5 grains) repeated at intervals. 

5. Vegetable Irritants. Ipecac, veratrine, etc. These are slow 
and have side actions which limit their use more or less to the produc- 
tion of nausea. Ipecac is sometimes used as an emetic, 1 dram of 
the wine or syrup every 15 minutes or as a powder 15 grs. in luke 
warm water. 

Veratrine, hypodermically, gr. }4 — Vz\ (0.02. — 0.03) in alcohol 
is the best emetic for swine according to Frohner or veratrum may be 
administered per os or per rectum, dose for swine grs. vij — xxx; 
0.5—2. 

6. Apomorphine is the only alkaloid not a local irritant that is 
used as an emetic. It is indicated wherever a prompt action is de- 
sired and unless further depression is dangerous, it is administered 



APOMORPHINE HYDROCHLORIDE 227 

subcutaneously. If depression is dangerous ammonium carbonate 
should be given for slow, and copper sulphate for prompt action. 

Summary. Apomorphine is the most powerful and reliable 
emetic. It may be given subcutaneously and causes but little nausea. 
It is useful in poisoning especially if there is difficulty in swallowing 
or when the stomach is not in condition for a mechanical or irritant 
material. It may not be effective in some cases of narcotic poisoning 
on account of depression of the vomiting center and may cause con- 
siderable depression in the aged or young. It is liable to deteriorate 
if exposed to the light or air. 

Ipecac is safe and quite prompt. It is more depressant and not 
so prompt as the minerals. It is especially indicated in the young to 
unload the stomach or expel mucus from the air passages. The 
syrup or wine are best for puppies and kittens. We have killed sev- 
eral dogs with ipecac without producing emesis, consequently ipecac 
cannot be considered a reliable emetic for these animals. 

Tartar Emetic. This has largely lost favor as an emetic on 
account of its prolonged period of depression, nausea, etc. Almost 
any other emetic is to be preferred. Used on robust animals only. 
Swine (grs. xv — xxx) ; 1. — 2.; dogs, large (jss — jv 0.1 — 0.3 grs.). 
Wine for dogs in 5j — iv doses. 

Zinc Sulphate. Chiefly in narcotic poisoning. Dose for dogs 
10 to 30 grs. ; 0.6 — 2.0 repeated in 15 to 30 minutes if necessary. 

Copper Sulphate. More prompt and powerful than the previ- 
ous. Dose for dogs 5 to 10 grains; 0.3 — 0.6. 

Alum. Powdered alum is safe but uncertain of action. Dram 
doses may be given and repeated at intervals if necessary. 

Mustard. Mustard flour or ground mustard is prompt and quite 
reliable. It is contraindicated in gastritis. Dose: Tablespoonful 
in hot or hike warm water, repeat in 10 to 15 minutes if necessary. 

APOMORPHINE HYDROCHLORIDUM 

This is an artificial alkaloid of morphine prepared by the abstrac- 
tion of one molecule of water from the true alkaloid. It occurs as 
minute grayish white, shining crystals, without odor, and having a 
faintly bitter taste. One gram is soluble in 50 parts of water or 
alcohol and acquires a greenish tint on exposure to light and air. It 
should therefore be kept in amber vials well stoppered. The U. S. P. 
directs that it should be discarded if it imparts at once an emerald 
green color to 100 parts of distilled water. Some authors claim that 
the change in color is not detrimental to the drug. 

Doses. 

1. As an emetic for dogs : gr. %o — Ye ', 0.002 — 0.01 ; for cats : 
gr. y 60 — Vsol 0.001—0.002. 



228 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

According to Frohner, cats require 10-25 times as much as dogs. 

2. Licking disease. Cattle and Sheep, gr. jss — iij ; 0.1 — 0.2. 

Young Cattle, gr. % — jss ; 0.05 — 0.1. Calves, gr. % — 
% ; 0.02—0.05. 

3. Expectorant. Horses and Cattle, grs. % — % ', 0.02 — 0.05. 

Dogs, grs. %o— y 20 ; 0.001—0.003. 

Externally and locally there is no action. 

Digestive System. Apomorphine is the most powerful and cer- 
tain emetic we possess. Vomition begins in from five to twenty 
minutes after ingestion, depending on the size of the dose and 
method of administration, and is repeated at intervals of about 
fifteen minutes for three or four times. The emesis is preceded and 
attended by but slight nausea and moderate depression. Apomor- 
phine is a typical direct or systemic emetic, its entire effect being 
exerted upon the vomiting center in the medulla. 

Nervous System. Full doses stimulate the brain and may even 
cause delirium. This is followed by depression and paralysis. If 
it is administered in very large doses and especially to those animals 
which do not vomit, it shows its irritant effect upon other parts of the 
central nervous system. The animals show restlessness, circus move- 
ments, excitement, fear, and quickened respirations. Convulsions 
finally set in and death takes place through paralysis of the respira- 
tory center. 

Circulatory System. Small doses have no effect. During 
emesis the heart beats faster and stronger and arterial pressure is 
raised, due to stimulation of the accelerator nerves of the vasomotor 
system. Large doses paralyze the circulatory apparatus. 

Respiratory System. Small doses do not affect the respirations 
but increase and fluidify the secretions from the respiratory tract 
probably by a nauseant action (expectorant). 

Toxicology. Symptoms are violent vomiting, delirium, convul- 
sions, and marked cardiac and respiratory depression. The treat- 
ment is similar to that for morphine poisoning. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Emetic for dogs and cats administered hypodermically. 

2. As an expectorant for the sticky mucous discharges in bron- 
chitis and catarrhal pneumonia. It should be given per os in small 
doses every two or three hours. 

3. As a specific for licking disease of cattle and wool pulling or 
eating of sheep, administered subcutaneously. 

5 Apomorphinae Hydrochloridi gr. viij 

Aquae Destillatse q. s ad. 3 j 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. 5 mils (1%, 3) once daily for a cow with licking disease. 

Frohner. 



IPECACUANHA — IPECAC 229 

Permanent solution. 

f£ Apomorphinse Hydrochloridi gr. iij 

Solve in aqua dest 3 v 

Ad Aeidi Hydrochloride "I ij 

M. Ft. Sol. This is a 1 per cent, solution for hypodermic use. 

IPECACUANHA 

Synonym. Ipecac 

Parts Used. The dried roots and a small portion of the stem 
of Cephcelis Ipecacuanha (Rio Ipecac) or C acuminata (Cartagena 
Ipecac). 

Constituents. Ipecac contains three alkaloids which contribute 
to its actions, one of which is of relatively little importance. These 
are cephoeline, to which the emetic action is due for the greater part ; 
emetine, which was so named when it was supposed to be the only 
active constituent present; and psychotrine, which is unimportant. 
The different alkaloids have not been studied in great detail, and 
we are not able to determine in every case to which we may attribute 
a given action of the crude drug. 

Emetine is known to be less emetic than cephseline, but commer- 
cial specimens of emetine certainly cause emesis whether adminis- 
tered by the mouth or intravenously. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Ipecacuanhce, or powdered root. Expector- 
ant. H. oj— ij; 4.-8. D. gr. %— %; 0.01—0.05. 
Emetic. D. gr. v — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 

Syrupus Ipecacuanhce. Expectorant. D. Tu;v — xxx; 0.3 — 
2. Emetic. D. 5ss — iv; 2. — 15.0. 

Pulvis Opii et Ipecacuanhce (Dover's Powder). See Opium 
p. 137. Expectorant. H. 3iv — viij ; 15 — 30. D. gr. ij 
— x; 0.13—0.6. 

*Tinctura Opii et Ipecacuanhce. Expectorant. Same as 
for above. 

Action. 

Externally and Locally. Ipecac is a powerful local irritant. 
The prolonged application or rubbing upon the skin causes much 
irritation, which may pass to vesication, pustulation or ulceration. 
It is also especially irritant to the mucous membrane of the respira- 
tory tract. 

Digestive System. Ipecac, in small doses, stimulates the 
stomach, increases the salivary and gastric secretions and serves as a 
bitter or stomachic. 

Large doses are powerfully irritant and emetic, the emesis being 
produced largely by local action on the stomach, but there is reason 

* Unofficial. 



230 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

to believe that there is also some slight action on the vomiting cen- 
ter. The vomiting is preceded and attended by but little nausea 
but the nausea is quite lasting. Large doses usually increase the 
secretion of bile and intestinal mucus and therefore serve not only 
as emetics but also as chologogues and purgatives. 

Respiratory System. The movements of respiration are not 
usually interfered with from ordinary doses. The bronchial 
mucous membrane is stimulated, increasing the secretion of mucus 
and thereby refiexly stimulating coughing. The increased secretion 
is probably due to the nauseant action. Since this action is persis- 
tent with ipecac, this drug is very useful as an expectorant when the 
secretions are thick and scanty. 

Therapeutics. 

1. As a mild emetic for swine, dogs and cats. It may be given 
as a powder or shake mixture. Swine and dogs. grs. xv — xlv; 1. — 3. 
Cats. grs. iv — x; 0.25 — 0.75. 

2. Antemetic in dogs and cats, in small doses where emesis is 
not dependent on some organic disease of the stomach. 

3. As an expectorant in acute bronchitis before the secretions 
have started and in chronic bronchitis where they are scanty and 
viscid ; also in catarrhal pneumonia and distemper of dogs, in small 
doses every few hours. Ipecac is most often administered as the 
syrup, wine or in combination with opium (Dover's Powders) for 
this purpose. 

4. As a stimulant to the rumen of ruminants for overloaded 
rumen and for chronic catarrh of the stomach. 

5. As a chologogue for icterus and liver disease. 

6. As a diaphoretic, in form of Dover's Powders in the early 
stages of acute coryza, muscular rheumatism, etc. The diaphoresis 
is probably due to the nauseant action. 

7. Anti dysenteric. It is principally used for tropical dysen- 
tery in man, caused by amebse, but is of no great service in veter- 
inary practice for this purpose. 

Expectorant, Dog. Acute stage of bronchitis. 

$ Vini Ipecacuanha? 3 ijss 

Potassii Citratis 3 iij 

Tinct. Opii Camphoratae. 

Syrupus Acacise aa 3 j 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 vj 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. Tablespoonful every 4 hours. 

EMETINE HYDROCHLORIDE 

Emetine is not only less nauseant than ipecac, but is also a 
powerful amebicide, to which the action of ipecac is entirely due in 



ANTEMETICS 231 

amebic dysentery. It is also actively destructive to the endameba 
which is said to be the cause of pyorrhea dentalis and pyorrhea 
alveolaris in man. In these last mentioned cases the drug may be 
administered either by injecting it into the diseased parts or given 
subcutaneously in any convenient part of the body. This alkaloid 
also has some value as a hemostatic agent to check and prevent 
capillary hemorrhage and is used by some surgeons to prevent 
hemorrhage following operations upon the nose and throat. For 
this purpose it is injected hypodermically about one-half hour 
before operating. It is not definitely known just how emetine 
checks bleeding, but it is believed to act directly upon the capillaries 
since it does not lower blood pressure or increase the coagulability of 
the blood. 

6. ANTEMETICS 

These are agents used to check nausea and vomiting and are, of 
course, limited to canine and feline practice in veterinary medicine 
for this purpose. In the treatment of nausea and vomiting the ani- 
mals should be kept as quiet as possible and allowed only small 
amounts of water or food at a time, since overloading the stomach 
with water or food will immediately bring on an attack of vomiting. 

The antemetics may be grouped as : 

1. Antacids to check the irritation due to hyperacidity: sodium 
bicarbonate, 10 to 20 grains, milk of magnesia, Vi to 2 drams, lime 
water. 

2. Protectives. These form a protective coating on the mucous 
membrane of the stomach and mechanically prevent its irritation, 
in the same manner in which a dusting powder protects the skin or 
raw surfaces. The principal ones are the insoluble bismuth salts 
and cerium oxalate, dose of either 5 to 30 grains. 

3. Central Sedatives. Chloral hydrate, morphine, etc., may 
be used in severe cases, but it must be remembered that morphine 
first causes emesis in dogs before it depresses the vomiting center, 
and one cannot depend upon its action in cats. 

4. Local Sedatives which depress the sensory nerve endings in 
the stomach may be of advantage. These are cocaine, stovaine, dose 
of either /12 — % grain, and other members of the group of local 
anesthetics, tincture of belladonna, 5 to 15 minims, atropine %oo — 
Moo grain, phenol 1 — 3 minims. 

5. Carminatives. Chloroform water, ginger, peppermint, etc., 
are serviceable in human medicine, but as a rule the aromatics are 
objectionable to dogs and cats. Chloroform water may be of con- 
siderable service. 

6. Counterirritation to the abdomen may be useful. Hot 
water bottle, ice bag, liniments, plaster. 



232 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 



7. PURGATIVES AND CATHARTICS 

Cathartics or purgatives are agents which quicken or increase 
the evacuation from the bowel. They may produce this action (1) 
by direct irritation of the mucous membrane of the intestine; (2) 
by increasing the fluid of the feces, or (3) by stimulating the nerve 
endings in the intestinal walls with resulting peristalsis. In all 
cases peristalsis is increased. In the first place, the increased per- 
istalsis is due to direct irritation of the mucous membrane; in the 
second place it is increased indirectly by distending the bowel with 
an increased amount of material, and in the last place by directly 
stimulating the nerve endings supplying the muscles of the intes- 
tine. 

The vegetable purgatives, with the exception of the alkaloidal 
rapid purgatives, act through their irritant properties, and in some 
cases only after they are acted upon by the secretions of some of the 
glands. (Castor oil.) In moderate doses, the purgatives simply 
hasten the normal movements of the intestines and the stools are of 
the ordinary appearance and consistency. In increasingly larger 
doses they become of a softer consistency and even watery. Their 
action is usually accompanied by some colicky pain and the rapid 
movements of the intestinal contents are shown by the characteristic 
gurgling sounds. Large amounts of powerful purgatives cause all 
the symptoms of gastroenteritis. The stools in these cases at first 
contain the ordinary fecal matter, with more than the usual amount 
of fluid, but later consist almost entirely of blood-stained mucus, 
with little or no resemblance to fecal matter. This violent purga- 
tion is accompanied by other symptoms of gastroenteritis and may 
result in shock, collapse and finally death. 

Neutral fats and saponified oils like butter, lard and olive oil 
pass practically through the stomach unchanged but are more or less 
completely saponified in the small intestines, and the resulting soaps 
may be sufficiently irritating to the intestinal mucous membrane to 
cause increased peristalsis and with the excess of the fat or oil act 
as a mild laxative. 

The source of the increased fluid in the feces following purga- 
tives has received a great deal of discussion. According to some 
authorities, purgatives simply accelerate the passage of the intes- 
tinal contents so that there is no time for absorption of the fluid and 
the feces are passed in the fluid condition in which they exist in the 
small intestine. Others hold that purgatives cause fluid to pass into 
the intestines either by increasing the normal secretions or by caus- 
ing an inflammatory exudate from the vessels. Both have, to a 
certain extent, proved their theories by injecting purgatives into 
loops of the intestine isolated from the rest of the bowel. The con- 
tradictory results are probably due to different methods of investi- 



EFFECTS OF PURGATIVES ON BILE 

gation, together with different amounts of the drugs used. It is 
now quite generally believed that with the small quantities usually 
employed in medicine, the irritation is probably only sufficient to 
accelerate peristalsis and the fluid condition of the feces is due to the 
fluid in the food and from the ordinary secretions from the digestive 
glands. In these cases the intestines are not actually inflamed but 
may be somewhat congested as in all glands in an abnormal state of 
activity. 

But when excessive doses are given, there may be a true in- 
flammation of the intestines accompanied by increased movement, 
congestion, exudation of fluid into the bowel and pain. 

The colic is probably due not to the inflammation of the intestines 
but to the more vigorous muscular contractions of the bowel and the 
difficulty in forcing the hard fecal matter along. The interval 
between administration and purgation depends somewhat upon the 
dose, the individual drug, and the animal to which administered. 
Horses and cattle are rarely purged under 12 — 24 hours with the 
usual purgative measures, while dogs will usually purge in from 5 
to 10 hours. The movements of the intestines caused by purgatives 
is accompanied by a marked leucocytosis, similar to that during 
digestion. 

Effects Upon the Bile. It was formerly believed that a 
majority of the vegetable purgatives stimulated the liver and in- 
creased the secretion of- bile. These were known as cliolagogues. 
This action is now known not to exist except in a very few cases ; the 
supposed cholagogue action is simply caused by the more rapid 
movements of the contents of the intestine, so that less time is 
given for absorption of the bile constituents, which are therefore 
found in greater quantity in the feces. 

A cholagogue is defined as a substance which will increase the 
secretion of bile, and since the bile salts usually keep pace with the 
secretion, the amount of secretion can be generally accepted as an 
estimate of the cholagogue action. 

The following conclusions have been drawn from experimenta- 
tion: 

Water,, even in large amounts, does not alter the quantity of bile ; 
and so the biliary secretion has been likened to the salivary and does 
not resemble that of the kidneys. 

The bile itself or the bile salts are by far the most certain and 
powerful cholagogues we have. They produce a rapid increase, 
which lasts for several hours and the secretion corresponds to the 
amount given, the larger the dose the larger the secretion, the liquid 
and solids being increased proportionately. 

Several other bodies have a mild or even moderate cholagogue 
effect, such as turpentine, sodium benzoate, sodium salicylate and 
podophyllum. 



234 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

There are no sound therapeutic principles for the use of cho- 
logogues as such, but it has been found that the presence of bile in 
the intestine is necessary for the action of certain purgatives. 
Buckheim and Stadelmann found that in the absence of bile, the 
following drugs are quite inactive or at least very much less power- 
ful than usual : podophyllum, jalap, scammony, rhubarb. It is be- 
lieved that this is due to the solvent action of the bile, for Stadel- 
mann found that if soaps were given with these agents their activity 
returned and that in other cases even a slight modification of their 
chemical nature was sufficient to restore their activity even in the 
absence of either bile or soap. 

Similar results have been observed from other causes. For in- 
stance, some of the pure principles of the purgatives are less active 
than the crude drugs, because the impurities of the latter alter their 
solubility. According to Cushny, this alteration of the solubility 
may act in two ways : " If the principle is rendered too soluble, it 
may be absorbed in the stomach and upper part of the bowel, and 
therefore fail to produce purgation; on the other hand, it may be 
rendered so insoluble that it fails to come into intimate contact 
w T ith the bowel wall, and therefore does not irritate it." According 
to Tappeiner, the effects of such colloid substances as the bile and 
gums is to delay the absorption of soluble substances as in the upper 
part of the bowel and at the same time keep the insoluble resins in 
suspension. 

It is suggested that some of the purgatives have a more specific 
action upon the organism and increase peristalsis by action upon the 
nerves controlling it. Thus senna, aloin, frangulin, colocynthin 
and podophyllin cause purgation when administered either intra- 
venously or subcutaneously, but it is believed that their action is 
due to their excretion into the bowel which will be inflamed as if given 
per os. 

Finally there is some reason to believe that purgation may result 
from reflexes arising from the stomach or skin or local irritation in 
some part of the bowel; and these reflexes in some cases must pass 
through the central nervous system. Dixon says, " Any irritant in- 
jected subcutaneously behaves as a purgative." 

General Indication for Purgatives. 

1. Relieve constipation. 

2. Remove irritants from the intestinal tract. 

3. Promote absorption. 

4. Remove waste products from the blood. 

5. Relieve cerebral congestion. 

6. Lower temperature in fever. 

7. Deplete the gastroduodenal mucous membrane. 

8. In the treatment of hemorrhoids or piles. 



ADMINISTRATION OF PURGATIVES 235 

1. Believe constipation. In acute simple constipation a cathar- 
tic or enema is always indicated. The vegetable laxatives are gen- 
erally employed in chronic constipation if dietetic measures fail. 

2. Remove irritants from the intestinal tract. Purgatives are 
indicated to remove irritants either in case of poisoning where the 
poison has escaped from the stomach or in early stages of acute 
diarrhea. 

3. Promote absorption. In this case the hydrogogues, and es- 
pecially the salines, are indicated in case of cardiac and renal drop- 
sies. They remove fluid from the blood and promote the absorption 
of lymph from the tissues by depleting the blood. They do not 
often prove serviceable in serous effusions of an inflammatory 
nature as in pericarditis and pleurisy. 

4. Remove waste products from the blood, as in uremia, puer- 
peral eclampsia or azoturia to remove toxic material. 

5. Relieve cerebral congestion. In this case the hydrogogue 
purgatives are indicated, since they tend to draw the blood to the 
bowels and to deplete the brain. They are also useful in cerebral 
hemorrhages, as they tend to prevent further extravasation of 
blood. 

6. Lower temperature in fever. Both purgatives and diuretics 
lower temperature in fever in some unknown manner. 

7. Deplete the gastroduodenal mucosa, where the congested and 
swollen mucosa obstructs the outflow of bile resulting in jaundice. 
In this condition the salines and especially the sodium salts are most 
efficient carthartics. 

8. Relieve hemorrhoids or piles. In this case the milder cathar- 
tics such as sulphur, senna, compound licorice powder, etc., should 
loe used. 

Administration of Purgatives. Purgatives are most fre- 
quently given per os, although some are administered per rectum, 
snbcutaneously and intravenously. The vegetable preparations are 
usually given as a pill or solution, although powders are occasionally 
prescribed. The oils are given in a drench and the salines in solu- 
tion. 

Classification. Cathartics have been grouped according to 
their chemistry, method of causing action, and according to their 
intensity of action and the character of feces obtained; but, since 
the intensity of action and character of action depend largely upon 
the dose, a classification so based must necessarily be imperfect. 
The following classes have been defined : laxatives, purgatives, dras- 
tics and hyclrogogues. 

Laxatives. These are the least irritating and least active of the 
cathartics. They produce stools quite normal in appearance and 
consistence. This group includes many foods, such as bran, 
molasses, and fruit. Most important drugs of this group are: 



236 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 



Manna 


Cassia Fistula 


Magnesia 


Tamarind 


Euonymus 


Sulphur 


Frangula 


Butternut 


Leptandra 


Cascara Sagrada 


Iris 


Oxgall 



Purgatives are more active than laxatives. They produce 
more abundant and somewhat liquid stools. The difference between 
these two groups is only in degree of action, as laxatives in large 
doses may be purgative and small doses of purgatives laxative. 
Usually placed in this group are : 

Aloes Castor Oil 

Rhubarb Calomel 

Senna Blue Mass 

Drastics. These produce severe action and in overdoses act as 
irritants, causing symptoms of acute enteritis. 

Croton Oil Podophyllum 

Colocynth Jalap 

Scammony Bryonia 

HydragOgues. These cause abundant, watery stools and are 
attended by but little irritation. The salines are the chief mem- 
bers of the group as, 

Magnesium Sulphate Potassium and Sodium Tartrate 

Sodium Sulphate Sodium Phosphate 

Magnesium Citrate Sodium Bitartrate 

Aside from these a few of the drastics serve as hydragogues, in 
suitable doses, elaterium, jalap, bryonia. 

For convenience of study, purgatives or cathartics will be 
grouped according to Bastedo with a few minor modifications. 

A. Irritants. 

(a) Some very weak laxatives. 

Sulphur 
Liquid paraffin Bile Salts 

(b) Fixed oils and their products (soap and glycerin). 

Olive oil Castor oil 

Castile soap Linseed oil 

Glycerin 

(c) Anthracene derivatives or Simple purgatives. 
Aloes Cascara Sagrada Frangula 
Senna Rhubarb 

Phenolphthalein 

(d) Cathartic mercurials. 

Calomel Blue mass, etc. 



PETROLATUM LIQUIDUM 



237 



(e) Drastics. 




Elaterin 
Croton oil 
Jalap 
Bryonia 
Juglans 


Podophyllin 
Scammony 
Euonmymus 
Stillingia 


(f) Saline. 




Subcutaneous. 





B. 

A. Irritants. 

(a) Some very weak laxatives. 



Gamboge 
Colocynth 
Jalap 
Leplandra 



PETROLATUM LIQUIDUM — LIQUID PETROLATUM 

Dose. D. 5j — iv;4. — 16. Cat. oss— j ; 2. — 4. 

This is a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons, chiefly of the methane 
series, obtained by distilling off most of the lighter and more volatile 
portions of petroleum, and purifying the liquid residue. There are 
several oils of commerce which answer this description and which 
are marketed under trade names as petrolax, mineral oil, etc. Rus- 
sian mineral oil is probably the nicest preparation. Most of these 
oils are practically odorless and tasteless and have been advanced as 
mild laxatives. Liquid petrolatum is not absorbed and the total 
amount administered may be recovered from the feces. The manner 
in which it produces action is not exactly known, but it is believed 
that it retards absorption on account of its oily nature, increases 
the bulk of the feces, and so stimulates peristalsis. At the same 
time it serves as a lubricant to the intestinal contents. Since it is 
non-irritating but, on the contrary, soothing to the gastrointestinal 
tract, it is proving of considerable value in small animal practice. 

Sulphur is a mild laxative due to the decomposition of a small 
portion of the amount administered to the sulphides. Its use as a 
laxative is limited almost entirely to cases where a mild persistent 
action is desired, as in hemorrhoids. For complete description of 
sulphur see p. 439. 

FEL BOVIS 

Synonym. Oxgall — Fel Tauri 

The fresh bile of Bos taurus. 

Preparation. Extractum Fellis Bovis — Extract of ox gall. — 
Bile is of no use in medicine because it simply increases the secretion 
of bile and there is no condition in which this increased secretion 
is desired. 



288 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

b. FIXED OILS AND THEIR PRODUCTS (SOAP AND 

GLYCERIN) 

As stated previously neutral fats and saponified oils like butter 
and olive oil pass through the stomach unchanged, but are saponified 
more or less completely in the small intestine, and the resulting soaps 
may be sufficiently irritating to the intestinal mucous membrane to 
cause increased peristalsis, and, with an excess of the fat or oil, act 
as mild laxatives. 

OLEUM OLIVAE — OLIVE OIL 

Synonym. Sweet Oil 
Source. This is a fixed oil expressed from the ripe fruit of 
Olea europcea, the common olive. It is rarely found in commerce in 
the pure form but usually adulterated with cottonseed oil. It is 
composed of olein 67 per cent., palmatin 28 per cent., linolein 5 
per cent. 

Dose. D. §ss — ij ; 15. — 60. Cat. 5j — §j ; 4. — 15. 

OLEUM AMYGDALiE EXPRESSUM 

Synonym. Expressed Oil of Almond 
This is a fixed oil expressed from bitter or sweet almond. It 
contains, olein 76 per cent. ; stearin and palmatin. Rarely used 
internally. 

OLEUM GOSSYPII SEMINIS 

Synonym. Cotton Seed Oil 

This is a fixed oil expressed from the cotton seed, or different 
varieties of Grossypium, and subsequently purified. It contains olein 
and palmatin. 

Dose. D. §ss— ij; 15.— 60. Cat. 3j— §j ; 4.— 15. 

OLEUM LINI 

Synonym. Linseed Oil 
A fixed oil expressed from linseed. It contains the glycerides 
of linoleic acid, linolenic acid and insolinolenic acid. The official 
oil is commercially termed " raw oil," that is, the oil just as it comes 
from the press. For painting purposes the raw oil is cooked with 
litharge, thereby enhancing its " drying " properties. This oil is 
then termed " boiled oil " and should not be used in medicine since 
it is very toxic. 

Dose. H. & C. O. j— ij ; 500.— 1000. Sh. & Sw. §vj— xij ; 
180.— 360. D. 3ij— J5J ; 8.— 30. 



OLEUM RICINI — CASTOR OIL 239 

Preparation. Linimentum Calcis (equal parts of lime water 
and linseed oil). 

These oils are essentially nutritives and digestible fats, but in 
large amounts (1 — 2 tablespoonfuls for the dog, V2 — 1 pint for large 
animals) may be mildly laxative, being changed to soap and gly- 
cerin in the intestines. In larger amounts, they are only partly 
saponified, and more purgative, deriving some of their results from 
increasing the bulk of the intestinal contents. 

Uses Internally. Olive oil and cottonseed oil are sometimes 
used as a laxative for small animals but not for large ones. Lin- 
seed oil is often used in large animal practice, particularly in horses, 
where it is not desired to produce severe purgation. It is also very 
serviceable in cattle practice although some authorities claim that the 
salines are to be preferred. Carron oil is a good preparation for ad- 
ministration to small and young animals and is often very service- 
able in heaves of horses. 

These oils may also be used as demulcents, to diminish excessive 
hydrochloric acid secretion in the stomach and to allay irritation of 
the rectum. 

Externally they are demulcents, emollients, and protectives. 
Linimentum calcis is especially useful in burns of the first degree. 



OLEUM RICINI 

Syno?iym. Castor Oil 

This is a fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Ricinus communis, 
a plant indigenous to southern Asia, and cultivated in temperate 
climates for ornamental and other purposes. 

Doses. H. 5xvj— xxxij ; 500.— 1000. Sh. & Sw. 51J — 
viij ; 60.— 240. D. §ss— ij ; 15.— 60. 

Externally and Locally. Like other bland oils it is sedative 
and protectant when applied to the skin and mucosa. 

Internally. The only important effect is upon the digestive 
tract, upon which it acts as a mild irritant, causing but little grip- 
ing or flatulence and unloading the bowels thoroughly. Chemically 
castor oil is a combination of glycerin, fatty acids and ricinoleic 
acid. This combination passes unchanged through the stomach, but 
is broken down by the bile and pancreatic juice into glycerin and 
recinoleic acid. The latter combines with the sodium present and 
forms sodium ricinoleate, a soap which has marked irritating prop- 
erties. This is also absorbed and excreted in various ways, appear- 
ing in the milk and imparting purgative properties to it. Castor 
oil requires from 4 to 5 hours to operate in the dog and much longer 
in the larger animals. It causes large soft stools and usually thor- 



240 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

oughly empties the digestive tract. It is said to be unreliable as a 
purgative for horses. 

The poisonous principle, Bicin, found in the seed coat of the 
bean, is an albuminous substance belonging to the globulin group 
and is usually termed a tox globulin. Ricin is one of the most toxic 
poisons known, but being soluble in water and not in oil, it is not 
present in expressed castor oil. The symptoms of poisoning from 
castor beans are violent abdominal pain, vomiting, purging, and col- 
lapse. Post mortem examinations show evidences of severe inflam- 
mation of the stomach and intestines with capillary thrombi in the 
various organs. 

Therapeutics. 1. Diarrhea. It is one of the best agents we 
possess in diarrheas of young animals and should be given in the 
early stages of this condition. Frohner says it is the best remedy 
for the diarrhea of dog distemper and other infectious intestinal 
diseases of dogs and should be preferred to opium. 

2. Retained meconium in foals and calves. This condition is 
best relieved by two ounce doses of castor oil, followed by enemata 
of warm water or warm water and olive oil repeated, if necessary. 

3. As a laxative in inflammatory conditions of the digestive tract. 

4. To thoroughly unload the bowels of small animals for any 
reason. 

Contraindications. It is not a good remedy in chronic con- 
stipation on account of its thorough emptying of the bowels and conse- 
quent constipation. 

Administration. Castor oil is usually given alone. Moderate 
warming will thin the oil and lessen its nauseating effect. For 
horses and cattle it may be given with equal parts of warm water 
or two ounces of ether. For dogs and cats it is best given in an emul- 
sion or with equal parts of olive oil, to which should be added 
10 — 20 minims of spirits of nitrous ether, or it may be given in 
capsule. 

For a Large Dog with Constipation. 

B Olei Ricini B jss ; 45.-50. 

Acacia? 3 ijss ; 10. 

Aqua q. s ad. S viij ; 240. 

M. Ft. Emulsum. 
Sig. Give at one dose. 

Frohner. 

Purgative for Dog. 

$ Olei Ricini B iij 

Mucilaginis Acacise B jss 

Syrupi B j i 

Aqua? Mentha? Piperita? B ijss 

M. Ft. Emulsion. 

Sig. Two teaspoonfuls to a small dog, two ounces to a large one. 



ALOE — ALOES 



241 



Purgative, Horse or Cow. 

n Olei Ricini O. j -500. 

iEtheris S ij 50. 

M. 

Sig. Give at one dose. 

c. ANTHRACINE DERIVATIVES 
ALOE 

Synonym. Aloes 

Aloe is the inspissated juice of the leaves of Aloe vera, Aloe ferox, 
Aloe Perryi or other species of aloe. 

It will be noticed that according to the official definition there 
are three sources of aloes. The plant Aloes vera furnishes the 
Curacao aloes, Aloe Perryi yields Socotrine aloes while Aloe ferox 
produces what is commercially called Cape aloes. These plants 
somewhat resemble the Century plant. Aloe Barbadensis — Barba- 
does Aloes — was formerly official and was the variety most often 
used in veterinary medicine. 

Aloes occurs in yellowish brown or orange brown to blackish 
brown opaque masses, partially soluble in water, completely soluble in 
alcohol. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Aloes 



Stomachic 




Laxative 




Cattle 3 j — ijss; 5. 


—10. 


§ jss— ijss; 45- 


-75. 


Horses 3 ss — j ; 2. 


— 5. 


% ss — jss; 15.— 


-45. 


Sheep or Goats 3 ss — j ; 2. 


— 5. 


3 ijss— vj; 10- 


-25. 


Swine grs. xv — xxx 1. 


— 2. 


3 j— ijss; 5- 


-10. 


Dogs gr. jss — vij ; 0.1 


— 0.5 


3 ss — j ; 2.— 


- 5. 


Cats gr. %— iij; 0.05— 0.2 


grs. iij — xv ; 0.2— 


- 1. 


Laxative Doses for Foals are: 






1 week old 


gr. viij- 


-xv ; 0.5— 1.0 




4 weeks old 


3 ss- 


-3j ; 2.-4. 




3 months old 


3 J- 


-ijss; 4. — 10. 




6 months old 


3 ijss- 


-iv; 10. —15. 




1 year old 


5 iv 


— v; 15. —20. 




2 years old 


3 v- 


-vj; 20. —25. 




3 years old 


3 vj— 


-vii'j; 25. —30. 




4 years old 


5 vj— § 


jss; 25. — 45. 

Frohner. 





Tinctura Aloes — Tincture of Aloes, 10 per cent. 

* Tinctura Aloes et Myrrhce — Tincture of aloes and Myrrh. 

* Unofficial. 



242 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

10 per cent, of each. Aloes also enter into the composition of nu- 
merous pills. 

Active Constituent. The active constituent is a neutral prin- 
ciple aloinum (aloin). This varies more or less in chemical com- 
position and physical properties according to the source from which 
obtained. It is chiefly prepared from Curacao aloes. It occurs as 
a light to dark yellow powder, of slight odor but intensely bitter 
taste. Soluble in about 65 parts of water and 10.75 of alcohol. 

Dose Yi — Yz that of aloes. 

Action. There is no profound action beyond the digestive tract. 
It is slightly stomachic in small doses increasing the secretions from 
the entire tract. It is also thought to increase the secretion of bile. 
Its purgative action is largely exerted on the large intestine. It 
stimulates the muscular coats of this organ (increased peristalsis) as 
well as increasing its secretions. 

Aloes requires from 12 to 36 hours to produce purgation, but 
usually purgation will not take place in less than 18 hours unless 
the horse has been prepared by a few messes of bran. 

Purgation may last from 3 to 24 hours. It is not safe to repeat 
an aloes purge inside of 48 hours as superpurgation may result. If 
at the end of 16 to 18 hours purgation has not started, the horse may 
be gently walked, and returned to the stall when signs of purgation 
show. During active catharsis horses will be off feed, colicky, and 
suffer from griping caused by the violent peristalsis. It is on this 
account that a carminative is usually added to aloes. These symp- 
toms should be kept in mind so that one will not be misled by the 
workings of an aloes purge. 

Large doses congest the pelvic viscera, irritate the rectum and 
may cause abortion. 

Euminants are not so susceptible to aloes as horses and this drug 
is therefore not certain in action but if combined with other purga- 
tives it is believed to assist their action. Dogs and cats require much 
more aloes for purgative action than man. According to Frohner, 
dogs require 5 to 10 times as much. 

Therapeutics. 1. Wherever a good brisk cathartic is desired: 
colic, hidebound, overloaded stomach or bowels, to expel worms after 
a vermicide, to promote the excretion of waste products from the 
bowels and blood: in fact, in those conditions demanding strong- 
purgation. 

2. As a tonic where a bitter tonic is desired. Here it is fre- 
quently difficult of administration as the animals will often refuse to 
take it if mixed with the feed. 

3. As a stimulant to wounds. Comp. tincture of aloes and 
myrrh. 

Contraindications. In inflammations of the digestive tract, 



RHEUM — RHUBARB 243 

piles, high fever, weak and debilitated animals, cystitis, inflamma- 
tion of the pelvic organs, pregnancy, and in milking animals 
the milk will have a bitter taste. Animals which are suckling the 
young may excrete enough aloes through the milk to purge the 
young. In influenza and catarrhal and respiratory diseases it should 
be given in very small doses, if at all, on account of the liability to 
cause superpurgation. 

Administration. Aloes is usually given per os in the form of a 
bolus or pill on account of its disagreeable taste. As a tonic it may 
be given in small doses upon the food if the animal will eat it. 
Some of its liquid preparations are given in solution. Occasionally 
aloin is given in solution. Where it is desired to make pills (boli), 
aloes is melted over a water bath, at a temperature not exceeding 
120° F., the other ingredients added and then a small amount of 
glycerin is added to the whole so that the mass will not dry so rapidly. 
In cases where it is desired to simply purge an animal he may be 
prepared for the purge by feeding on bran mashes for a day or two 
before administering the aloes. A carminative is often added to 
aloes to lessen the griping. Atropine or belladonna is also added 
occasionally for the same purpose. Aloes will also cause purgation 
when given by enema provided it is administered with bile or some 
solvent like glycerin. 

There are certain precautions which should be taken when ad- 
ministering a purgative dose of aloes to a horse. 

He may be gently walked 12 hours after the dose if purgation 
does not take place, but upon its appearance should be kept in the 
stable. His water should be warmed. His food should be limited 
to hay and bran, if he will take any nourishment at all, he should 
not be allowed any green food and should not be worked until purga- 
tion ceases. 

Purge for Horse. 

5 Aloes 3 vj-viij 

Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis grs. xxx-lx 

Nucis Vomicae 3 j 

Zingiberis 3 ij 

M. Ft. Bolus. 

Sig. One dose. 

Wound Dressing. 

R Tincturge Aloes. 

Tincturae Myrrh aa. q. s. 
M. Ft. Sol. 
Sig. Apply to wound. 

RHEUM 

Synonym. Rhubarb 

Parts Used. The rhizomes and roots of Rheum officinale and 
other species of rheum, a perennial herb, resembling garden rhu- 



244 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

barb but of larger growth, and native to Asia. There are several 
official preparations but the drug is not much used in veterinary 
medicine. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Rhubarb. 



Stomachic Astringent 


Laxative 


Horses 3 ijss-vj ; 10.-25. 3 vj; B jss; 25.-50. 


Not Used 


Foals, Calves, 




Sheep and 




Swine 3 S s-j; 2- 5. 3 j-ijss; 5.-10. 


5 jss-iij 50.-100. 


Dogs grs. vij-xv; 0.5.- l.grs. xv-xxx; 1.— 2. 


3 j-iv 5.- 15. 


Cats gr. jss-viij; 0.1.-0.5. gr. vij-xv; 0.5- l.j 


grs. jss-3 j ; 1- 5, 



Fluidextract 100 per cent. 

Tinctura Rhei 20 per cent. — contains cardamon also. 

Tinctura Rhei Aromatica — 20 per cent, rhubarb, plus cinna- 
mon, cloves, nutmeg. 

Pulvis Rhei Compositus, Compound Powder of Rhubarb. Rhu- 
barb 25, magnesium oxide 65, ginger 10. 

Extractum Rhei, twice the strength of the crude drug. 

Syrupus Rhei 10 per cent. Doses. 5 j — iij ; 4. — 12. 

Syrupus Rhei Aromaticus 3 per cent. Doses. Same as for 
syrup. 

* Mistura Rhei et Sodii. Sodium bicarbonate 35, fluidextract of 
rhubarb 15, fluidextract of ipecac 3, glycerin 350, spirit of pepper- 
mint 35, water to make 1000. 

Action. Rhubarb contains chrysophanic acid, emodin and rheo- 
tannic acid. The chrysophanic acid is quite irritant, but it is ab- 
sorbed before reaching the colon, so does not participate in the typical 
rhubarb action. Rhubarb is described as stomachic and astrin- 
gent in small doses and laxative in large ones, but the astringent ac- 
tion tends to assert itself even after the laxative action has been 
induced. The aromatics enhance its astringent effect and explain 
why the aromatic syrup is astringent and syrup of rhubarb is laxa- 
tive. It is said that it does not produce purgation in horses and 
cattle even in large amounts. 

Therapeutics. The uses of rhubarb closely follow its action. 

1. In small closes it serves as a bitter stomachic. 

2. In medium doses it is an astringent and is quite serviceable 
in diarrheas of young animals. For this action it should be com- 
bined with aromatics and sodium bicarbonate. 

3. As a laxative in young animals which are suffering from 
constipation, rhubarb may be very serviceable. It is also very serv- 
iceable in the early stages of diarrhea in these animals to sweep out 
the irritant material from the intestines, and then to check in- 
testinal movements. Combined with calomel it is a purgative for 

* Unofficial. 



CASCARA SAGRADA — FRANGULA 245 

the dog. One or two drops of the tincture in the drinking water will 
serve as a laxative for small birds. It is not a suitable remedy for 
chronic constipation on account of its tendency toward astringent 
action. 

Diarrhea — Puppy. 

3 Magnesii Oxidi grs. xl 

Syrupi Ehei Aromatici ^ vj 

Aquae Mentha? Piperita? q. s ad. § j 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. One-half to one teaspoonful repeated twice at intervals of one 
hour. 

Indigestion, Dog, from overeating. 

I* Nucis Vomica? gr. xij 

Ehei gr- xxrv 

Sodii Bicarbonatis 3 j 

M. Ft. Chart. No. XII. 
Sig. One before feeding. 

CASCARA SAGRADA 

Synonyms. Rhamnus Purshiana, California Buckthorn. 
Parts Used. The dried bark of Rhamnus Purshiana collected 
at least one year before being used. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Cascarce Sagradce. D. Til xv — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 
Fluidextractum Cascarce Sagradce Aromaticum. D. TTt xv — 

xxx; 0.3—2. 
Extractum Cascarce Sagradce. D. grs. iij — viij ; 0.12 — .5. 

Action. This is a very efficient laxative for dogs and other 
small animals. Besides its purgative properties it contains a bitter 
principle which gives it some stomachic properties. Its action is 
seldom attended with any irritation or unpleasant symptoms, requir- 
ing from 6 to 10 hours to produce effect. 

Therapeutics. This drug is chiefly used to overcome chronic 
constipation due to torpor of the bowels. It is of slow action and is 
better fitted to regulate the bowels than to evacuate them. When 
used in chronic constipation the dose should be gradually diminished 
until a natural passage is obtained. Its chief advantage is that ani- 
mals do not develop a tolerance for it, when it is used over long 
periods or frequently. It can be given as the extract in pills or as the 
fluidextract or aromatic fluidextract without dilution. 

FRANGULA 

Synonym. Buckthorn 
The dried bark of Rhamnus Frangula, collected at least one year 
before being used. 



246 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

Preparations. 

Fluidextr actum Frangulce. 

D. 5 ss — j. ; 2. — 4. 

The action and uses of Frangula are similar to those of the previ- 
ous drug but it has been largely replaced by it. 

SENNA 

Senna is the dried -leaflets of Cassia Acutifolia (Alexandria 
Senna) or of Cassia angusti folia (India Senna). 
Preparations and Doses. 

Senna. Horses and Cattle 5 iv — v; 120. — 150. Sheep and 
Swine. § j — ij ; 30. — 60. Dog and Cat. 5 j — iv; 4. — 16. 

Fluidextractum Sennce 100 per cent. Same as Senna. 
Infusum Sennas Compositum, 6 per cent, with manna, magne- 
sium sulphate, fennel and water. D. § j — iv ; 4. — 15. 

* Confectio Sennce 10 per cent, with cassia fistula, tamarinds, 
prune, fig, sugar, coriander and water. 

Syrupus Senna? — 25 per cent. Dogs. 3 j — iv; 4. — 15. 

Pulvis Glycyrrhizoe Compositus — Compound licorice powder 
(senna 180, licorice 236, washed sulphur 80, oil of fennel 4, sugar 
500). 

D. o ss— ij; 2.-8. 

Action and Uses. Senna resembles the preceding drugs in 
action and uses but is not often used in veterinary practice. 

LAXATIVE PHTHLEINS 

Phenolphthaleinum — Purgen. This is an artificial anthra- 
cene derivative, prepared by the interaction of phenol and phthalic 
acid. It is a white crystalline powder, slightly soluble in water, 600 
parts, and freely so in alcohol, 10 parts. It is used for the small ani- 
mals only in doses of from Y\o to 4 or 5 grains. It is an agreeable 
and fairly reliable purgative, producing large watery stools, and 
appears to have no other action. Solutions in oil injected subcutane- 
ously cause purgation without local irritation. This is the drug 
upon which most of the candy cathartics depend for their action. 
It may be given in pill and is sometimes combined with calomel when 
that agent is to be given in small divided doses. 

d. THE MERCURIALS 

This group comprises the insoluble purgative mercurials, calomel 
(mild mercurous chloride), mass of mercury (blue mass), and mer- 

* Unofficial. 



MERCURIALS 247 

cury with chalk (gray powder). These agents have little if any 
action on the stomach unless their passage through it is delayed. 
They are believed to produce their purgative action by mildly irri- 
tating the intestines with some possible increase in the intestinal 
secretions, thereby stimulating peristalsis both directly and indirectly. 

The evacuations from the mercurials are large and loose and 
may be charged with undecomposed bile. They are not usually ac- 
companied by much griping but large doses may cause consider- 
able colic and watery feces, and nausea in some animals. For a 
long time it was thought that calomel was a distinct chologogue, but 
later researches show that it serves this purpose only indirectly by 
moving the aliment away from the bile duct and thus facilitating 
the discharge of bile into the intestine. 

There is considerable uncertainty concerning the antiseptic ac- 
tion of calomel in the intestines. It is generally believed that it 
does not destroy the bacteria or even greatly inhibit their growth 
in the intestines, but does remove great numbers through purgation. 

Only a small portion of mercurials is absorbed if evacuation 
is produced quickly, but if there is interference with the passage 
of the intestinal contents after a large dose of them, diuresis is 
produced. This interference is occasionally secured by administer- 
ing morphine or opium with small doses of calomel, but if it occurs 
after large doses toxic symptoms referable to the irritant action of 
mercury on the kidneys and other symptoms of mercurialism may 
result. Consequently some means should be taken to induce purga- 
tion if the mercurials fail to act unless small doses are given for their 
diuretic action. 

Calomel acts as a laxative or purgative according to the method 
of administration and dosage used. It differs from most other 
purgatives in that its cathartic effect does not increase in a ratio 
with the dose. Fractional doses repeated at half hour intervals, un- 
til 1 or 2 grs. (dog) have been taken will produce more purgation 
than 10 grs. taken at a single dose. 

Therapeutics. Calomel is indicated as a purgative in bilious- 
ness characterized by coated tongue, foul breath, etc. It is also 
especially good to unload the bowels early in an infectious disease, 
since it unloads the bowels thoroughly and carries out many bacteria. 

Calomel is often added to the ordinary aloes pill for horses as it 
is believed to assist the action of aloes. 

Frohner states that it may be abortifacient in canine distemper 
but most authorities do not agree on this use. 

The other preparations of mercury have similar actions and 
"uses. In veterinary practice, probably calomel is more used in the 
treatment of the small animals than the large. Pills of /(o grain 
each of calomel have proved very serviceable in digestive derange- 
ment of cats (constipation). 



£48 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

Administration. Calomel is usually given in ball or pill and 
it is best always to follow with a purgative, particularly the salines. 
Sodium bicarbonate is often added to calomel under the impression 
that it is necessary to combine an alkali with a mercurous salt to 
prevent its conversion into a mercuric salt by the gastric juice; but 
the amount so combined is not adequate to neutralize more than a 
small amount of the gastric juice. Furthermore, no such change 
takes place when calomel is subjected to the action of the gastric 
juice. 

Doses. Calomel (Hydrargyri Chloridi Mite). H. and C. 
5jss — ij ; 6. — 8. Dog. gr. ss — jss; 0.03 — 0.1. Cat. gr. 
Ho— %; 0.006— 0.012. e 

For complete materia medica see Mercury, p. 426. 

e. DRASTICS — ANHYDRIDS 

These bodies are mostly of uncertain composition, some glucosides, 
as colocynth and jalap, and other bitter principles, neither acid, 
glucosidal, nor alkaloidal in nature, as elaterium and podophyllum. 
These drugs are much more irritant than the anthracine group studied 
previously and large doses readily set up acute gastroenteritis with 
violent peristalsis and exudation of muco-purulent material, which 
may be blood-stained in some cases. 

After very large doses the feces are very fluid, and griping is 
severe, while excessive doses may cause bloody stools, collapse and 
even death. 

General Uses of the Drastics. With the exception of podo- 
phyllum and its resin, all the members are used to secure prompt 
evacuation of the bowels and are capable of producing profuse watery 
feces. Their action is very similar, differing only in minor de- 
tails, so that it is of little importance which is chosen for a given 
case. In general, they are indicated only where a prompt thorough 
emptying of the bowels is desired. They are contraindicated in 
inflammatory conditions of the digestive tract and large doses are 
contradindicated in pregnancy. 

OLEUM TIGLII 

Synonym. Croton Oil 
This is a fixed oil expressed from the seeds of Croton Tiglium. 

Doses. H. 111 x — xxx ; 0.6 — 2. C. 1TL xxx — lx; 2. — 4. D. 
Til %— j ; 0.015—0.065. 

It should always be administered in some bland oil, as it is very 
irritating. 

Action. Croton oil contains a resin-like substance which is a 



ELATERINUM — ELATERIN 249 

powerful irritant when applied to the skin, exciting inflammation, 
vesication and even pustulation. 

Internally. Croton oil contains some free crotonoleic acid, 
which- is irritant to the body tissues. It is decomposed in the small 
intestines to Croton oleates which are much more actively irritating 
than the ricinoleates. It is therefore a drastic purgative, producing 
copious amounts of feces. Its action is attended with a great deal of 
griping and oftentimes nausea. Large or excessive doses cause 
gastroenteritis, accompanied by prostration and collapse. 

Therapeutics. Its internal use is almost entirely confined to 
cattle practice, where it is used as a strong purgative. It is not 
usually employed except as an extreme measure. 

Externally as a strong counterirritant, for blister, etc. It is often 
used upon cattle but rarely on horses, as its action is very severe. 

Administration. It should be given by the mouth, mixed with 
some bland oil or as an emulsion. 
Impaction of Omasum, Cow. 

R Olei Lini O. ij 

Olei Tiglii tt\ xxx 

M. Ft. ; Sol. 

Sig. Give at one dose. 

Blister. 

3 Olei Tiglii 3 iv 

Olei Lini 3 x iij 

Olei Terebinthinae 3 ij 

Camphorse 3 j 

Petrolati 3 ij 

Acidi Sulphuriei 3 ij 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Apply as directed with but little friction. 



ELATERINUM — ELATERIN 

This is a neutral principle obtained from elaterium, a sub- 
stance deposited by the juice of the fruit of Ecballium Elaterium, or 
squirting cucumber, a vine indigenous to the Mediterranean shores. 

Doses. 

Elaterinum. H. gr. ss — ij ; 0.03 — 0.13. D. gr. % — M.o ; 

0.003—0.006. 
Trituratio Elaterini — Trituration of Elaterin (Elaterin 

10, Milk Sugar 90). Dog. gr. Y 2 —l. ; 0.032—0.065. 

Elaterin is exceedingly irritant to all tissues. Administered 
by the mouth it is probably the most powerful hydrogogue purgative 
known. It produces large, watery stools very promptly. Its action 
is said to be stronger than jalap and less active than gamboge or 



250 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

eolocynth, and is attended with much griping, pain and prostration. 
In overdoses it is a violent poison. 

Therapeutics. Elaterin is not used to any extent in veterinary 
medicine but would be indicated, if at all, in those cases where we 
desire profuse, watery discharges, such as congestion of the brain, 
ascites, uremia, poisoning, etc. It is contraindicated in inflamma- 
tions of the digestive tract and pregnancy. 

CAMBOGIA 

Synonyms. Gamboge, Pipe Gamboge 
This is a gum resin obtained from Garcinia Hanburii, a medium 
sized laurel-like tree of Siam. It occurs as a yellow powder. 

Doses. Cattle, oij — 5J ; 8. — 30. 

The action and uses of gambogia are similar to those of the 
other hydrogogues, but it is not of much use. It is too irritant for 
dogs and horses and practically never used alone, but usually asso- 
ciated with other cathartics, as epsom salts. One ounce of gamboge, 
with one-half pound each of epsom salts and common salt in one 
quart of water make an efficient purgative for cattle. 

JALAPA 

Synonym. Jalap. 

Jalap is the dried tuberous root of Exogonium Purga, a plant 
grown on the eastern slopes of the Mexican Andes. It contains two 
glucosides, convolvulin and jalapin. 

Doses and Preparations. 

Jala pa. D. grs. x — lx; 0.6 — 4. Pigs. 3j— iv; 4. — 16. 
Oleoresina Jalapce. D. grs. j — x; 0.065 — 0.6. Pigs. grs. 
vij — xxx ; 0.5 — 2. 

The action and uses of jalap are similar to the other hydrogogues, 
so they will not be discussed again. It is but little used in veter- 
inary medicine. 

* BRYONIA 

Synonym. Bryony 

The parts used are the roots of Bryonia alba and dioica, climb- 
ing plants of Central and Southern Europe. It is a drastic purga- 
tive but its use has been practically discontinued. 

PODOPHYLLUM 

Synonyms. May Apple, Mandrake (vegetable calomel of Germans) 

The parts used are the rhizomes and roots of Podophyllum pel- 

tatum, an herb growing in moist shady places of northern United 

* Unofficial. 



COLOCYNTH — SCAMMONY 251 

States and Canada. Its active principles are two glucosides, 
podophyllotoxin and picropodophyllin. These are not present as 
such in the fresh root but develop on drying. The root is best after 
two years' drying. Podophyllin is the trade name for the resin. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Podophyllum. H. oj — ijss; 5 — 10. D. gr. jss — iv; 0.1 — 

0.25. 
Fluidextr actum Podophylli. Same as powdered root. 
Resina Podophylli (Podophyllin). D. gr. %.2 — j ;0.1 — 

0.25. 

Podophyllum or its resin is a constituent of several pills. 

Podophyllum is an energetic, slow acting, irritant cathartic. Its 
action is attended with considerable pain and griping. It was for- 
merly believed and is still believed by some authorities to directly 
stimulate the secretion of bile, but this is doubtful. 

Therapeutics. It is often preferred to the other hydragogues 
and is especially useful in habitual constipation associated with tor- 
pidity of the liver. If combined with other purgatives, only those 
of slow action should be chosen, such as aloes, calomel, etc. Anti- 
spasmodics, such as belladonna, should be added to prevent griping. 
It is uncertain in action upon horses and cattle. 

R Aloini gr. Va 

Cascarini gr. X A 

Podophyllini gr. x /g 

Ext. Belladonnae gr. ^4 

Laxative pill for dog. 

COLOCYNTHIS 

Synonyms. Colocynth, Bitter Apple, Colocynth Pulp 

Parts used are the seeds of Citrullus Colocynthis deprived of 
their rind. Indigenous to arid parts of Asia, Africa, and Southern 
Europe. 

Extractum Colocynthidis. Swine, gr. ss — ij ; 0.3; 0.13. 

D. gr. y 8 — y 4 ; 0.01—0.03. 
Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum. Swine, gr. iv — xv; 

0.25—1. D. gr. j— viij ; 0.065—0.5. 

SCAMMONIAE RADIX 

Synonym. Scammony Root 

This is the dried root of Convolvulus Scammonia, a perennial 
herb growing in Western Asia. Its active principle is scammonin, 
a resin. 

The above two drugs are drastic purgatives. Colocynth is said 



252 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

to be of uncertain action in the horse and dog. Scammonia is one 
of the oldest drastics. Its use dates back to the time of Hippocrates 
but has been about abandoned. 

Other drugs of this group are: Leptandra (Culver's Root), 
Iris (Blue Flag), Stellingia (Queen's Root) and Juglans (Butter- 
nut). These drugs are rarely used in veterinary medicine. 

f. SALINES 

The most prominent members of this group are sodium sulphate, 
magnesium sulphate, potassium sulphate, sodium and potassium tar- 
trate, potassium bitartrate and magnesium oxide. 

The salines differ from the vegetable purgatives in being but 
feeble_ irritants to the intestines. It was formerly believed that the 
salines stimulated more or less secretion from the intestinal canal, 
while their slow diffusibility impeded the absorption of the secreted 
fluid and it was on this account that they were recommended to be 
given in concentrated solutions. It has been shown that this theory 
was wrong, because the purgative action is not proportional to their 
endosmotic equivalent. 

All saline substances are not absorbed at the same rate. Some 
are rapidly taken up from the stomach and intestines, and others so 
slowly that they reach the large intestines before any appreciable 
absorption has taken place. The kation magnesium is absorbed the 
most slowly, calcium, a little more readily and those of potassium, 
sodium and lithium, about equally but more rapidly than calcium. 

The chlorides are the anions absorbed most rapidly, then come 
the bromides, iodides, nitrates and lastly the sulphates, the last- 
named being almost entirely excreted by the rectum. The cathartic 
action of an ion depends on the time required for its absorption, the 
slower the absorption, other things being equal, the greater the pur- 
gative effect. 

On account of their being nonabsorbable, these salts exert their 
osmotic properties in the following ways: If a concentrated solu- 
tion of a slightly diffusible (absorbable) salt is taken into the 
stomach, it becomes diluted with the liquid present, or if the stomach 
was empty it draws fluid from the cells of the stomach, causing irri- 
tation, with nausea and at times even vomition. 

The rate of the dilution in the stomach, in the absence of fluid 
present, depends somewhat upon the amount of fluid in the blood 
and tissues. If they contain large quantities of fluid, the dilution 
will be fairly rapid and when the solution has become fairly diluted 
it will pass on into the small intestines. However, if the blood and 
secretions do not contain fair amounts of water, the dilution is slow 
and vomiting may take place, but if water is freely supplied, the 
nausea is not so marked and may not be seen. 

Upon reaching the intestines the solution retains its water until 



SALINES 253 

its concentration approximates that of the blood. The distention of 
the intestines by the fluid stimulates peristalsis, both in the large 
and small intestines. 

The cathartic salts are not absolutely non-absorbable, and so if 
peristalsis is prevented by some means, their solutions may be almost 
completely absorbed into the blood and cause diuresis if the absorp- 
tion has been sufficiently rapid, because the renal epithelium is per- 
meable to these salts. On the other hand, those salines which are 
rapidly absorbed act as diuretics, since they withdraw fluid from 
the tissues into the blood, and consequently increase blood pressure 
in the kidneys. Furthermore, they are readily diffusible to the 
epithelium of the kidneys. 

There is considerable controversy concerning just how the pur- 
gative action of salines takes place, but it is believed to be due, 
almost if not entirely, to their physical relation to the tissues 
(osmotic properties). 

In the first place, they increase the fluid in the intestinal canal. 
For instance, if an isotonic solution of epsom salts is injected into 
a loop of intestine, very little secretion or absorption occurs, so that 
after a few hours' time the same amount of salt and liquid may be 
obtained. If stronger, hypertonic solutions are used, the fluid in 
the loop will be increased on account of osmotic action. The pres- 
ence of these non-absorbable salts in the intestines prevents the nor- 
mal absorption of fluid, and hence a much larger amount will reach 
the large intestine and the contents of the bowel will necessarily be 
more fluid. The increased amount of fluid causes distention of the 
bowel and this will stimulate peristalsis. Isotonic and hypotonic 
solutions of the cathartic salts will prevent absorption but only con- 
centrated hypertonic solutions draw fluid from the tissues and blood 
and may fail to cause purgation if the blood tissues contain very lit- 
tle fluid, as has been shown in experimental work on animals which 
have been deprived of water for a few days previously ; but, on the 
contrary, where large quantities of fluid are present in the system, as 
in edema, the salines, administered in concentration (hypertonic 
solutions), produce purgation readily by drawing fluid indirectly 
through the blood into the bowel. It is on account of the fact that 
hypertonic (concentrated) solutions must get their water from 
the tissues, that they require much longer to produce their action 
than weak solutions, and consequently, unless it is desired to remove 
a large amount of fluid from the body, as in edema, they should be 
given well diluted and the animal allowed plenty of water. 

The salines prove very serviceable for ruminants and small ani- 
mals, but are not especially dependable in equine medicine. 



254 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

SUMMARY OF ACTION OF SALINES 

1. They irritate the stomach and are liable to cause nausea and 
vomiting, but this can be largely overcome by administering them 
in dilute solution and supplying plenty of water. 

2. Their cathartic action is largely due to the increased bulk 
and fluidity of the intestinal contents, which are chiefly due to the in- 
hibited absorption. 

3. If elimination by the intestinal canal is prevented, they do not 
cause inflammation of the bowels and are absorbed. 

4. If absorbed, they are eliminated by the kidneys and act as 
diuretics. 

5. The feces following salines are fluid but do not contain in- 
flammatory products. 

6. In moderately hypertonic solutions, they tend to remove fluid 
from the body. 

MATERIA MEDICA AND USES OF DIFFERENT SALINES 
MAGNESII SULPHAS — MAGNESIUM SULPHATE 

Synonym. Epsom Salts 

Description. Small, colorless, prismatic needles or rhombic 
prisms without odor and having a cooling, saline and bitter taste. 
Soluble in 0.85 part of water at 25° C. (77° F.) and in 0.13 part of 
boiling water ; insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. Horse, lb. ss — ij ; 250 — 500. Cattle. Id. j — ij ; 
500—1000. Sheep and Goats. §ij— iv; 60.— 120. 
Swine. §ij — iv ; 60. — 120. Dogs. Sijss — §ij ; 10 — 60. 
Cats and Fowls. 5ss — j ; 2. — 4. 

Therapeutics. 1. As a purgative especially for cattle or other 
ruminant. It should be administered in solution in water, together 
with some carminative. Sodium chloride is sometimes prescribed 
with it and is said to increase the catharsis. 

2. Laxative and mild purgative for the horse. In this animal 
active catharsis does not usually take place, but if administered in 
4 ounce doses in drinking water and repeated frequently a laxative 
action will often result. Magnesium sulphate is not a reliable pur- 
gative for the horse. 

3. It is often prescribed twice daily in small doses in febrile 
diseases, administered in drinking water. It seems to lower the 
temperature, and stimulates the activity of the bowels. 

4. As an alterative, in unhealthy conditions of the skin and in 
cutaneous affections. Its results are here questionable. 

5. Antidote to poisoning by the salts of lead, which it converts 
into insoluble sulphates and also assists in their elimination. 



RAPID PURGATIVES 255 

6. Tetanus. Dawson and others have recommended epsom salts 
in the treatment of tetanus. They administer 20 mils of a 10 per 
cent, solution hypodermically every fifteen minutes. 

Poisoning by Magnesium Sulphate. Very concentrated 
solutions of magnesium sulphate may not produce purgation, are 
then absorbed and are poisonous. The symptoms are: marked de- 
pression of the respirations, together with a curare-like action on the 
motor end plates in striated muscle. The antidotes, according to 
some authorities, are calcium and eserine. 

SODII SULPHAS — SODIUM SULPHATE 

Synonym. Glauber's Salt 

This salt occurs as large colorless transparent prisms or granular 
crystals, odorless, bitter saline taste. Soluble in 2.8 per cent, of 
water. Dose. Same as for magnesium sulphate. 

Sodii Sulphas Exsiccatus — Dried Sodium Sulphate. Dose. 
One-half that of sodium sulphate. 

Its action and uses are similar to those of the previous drug, 
but it seems to give better service in horses. It is particularly ser- 
viceable in catarrhal icterus. It is not of so much benefit in lead 
poisoning as the magnesium salt. Sodium sulphate is recommended 
as an antidote to carbolic acid poisoning. It enters into the well 
known artificial Carlsbad salt (Sal Carolinum Factidum). 

S Sodii Sulphatis | Y. 

Sodii Bicarbonatis \ x ) 

Sodii Chloridi 3 J 

M. Ft. Pulvisf. 

OTHER SALINE PURGATIVES 

Potassii et Sodii Tartras, Potassium and Sodium tartrate (Ro- 
chelle Salt), Magnesium oxide, Magnesium hydroxide (in the form 
of milk of magnesia) and the carbonate are very weak laxatives and 
rarelv employed in veterinary practice. 

Potassium Citrate and Bitartrate (cream of tartar) are mild 
laxatives, but are rarely used in veterinary medicine. 

For Materia Medica of these salts, see respective elements, Po- 
tassium, etc., p. 347. 

B. SO CALLED RAPID PURGATIVES 

From our discussion of the actions of purgatives it will be evi- 
dent that any drug which stimulates the vagus or motor nerve end- 
ings in the intestines will be capable of increasing peristalsis and 
producing purgation. From a number of agents which stimulate the 
nerve endings of the above mentioned nerves, the following are the 
only ones of importance: 



256 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

Eserine (Physostigmine), Arecoline, Pilocarpine and one which 
produces purgation in an entirely different manner, Barium 
chloride. 

These drugs are all discussed in detail in other places. Eserine 
p. 203, Pilocarpine p. 206, Arecoline p. 208, Barium chloride 
p. 357. 

Briefly their uses are as follows: 

PHYSOSTIGMINE — ESERINE 

1. Myotic, See Myotics, p. 214. 

2. Stimulant to involuntary muscle, as in impaction of the 
bowels to increase or stimulate peristalsis. Usually, or at least 
often, combined with pilocarpine to start the secretions as 

5 Eserinse Sulph grs. j 

Pilocarpine Hyd grs. iij 

Aquse (Sterilis) 3 j 

In atonic conditions of the stomach and bowels and chronic 
intestinal catarrh, small doses frequently repeated are sometimes of 
benefit. 

Contraindications. 

1. Impactions and overdistentions of the stomach and intestines 
from undigested food. In this case it may cause rupture of the 
walls of the intestines and stomach. (It is often used, however, 
with gratifying results.) 

2. In spasmodic colic, since it tends to increase the convulsive 
contractions of the bowels, consequently the pain is increased. 
There is also some danger of causing twist by the violent peristalsis. 

3. In pregnancy eserine may cause abortion. 

4. In tympanites and chronic indigestion of cattle eserine is 
not recommended by some, although it is the general opinion that it 
is a safe and efficient remedy in acute tympany. 

Antidote. Atropine or hyoscyamine. 

Caution: Since eserine and its salts decompose on exposure to 
the air, it is not suitable for hypodermic tablets. It should be pur- 
chased in hermetically sealed tubes. Solutions a week old have 
proved effective, but tend to deteriorate and assume a purple color. 
The salicylate is more stable than the sulphate. 

Pilocarpine. This is indicated for the same conditions as eser- 
ine and usually combined with it. It has been recommended by 
some as an absorbent for serous exudates. 

Contraindications. 

1. It should not be given where the heart is weak. This also 
holds true in case of any of this group. 



AGENTS ACTING UPON THE RECTUM 257 

2. In pharyngitis and tetanus it is contraindicated because the 
animal swallows with difficulty and may even smother in its own 
saliva. 

Arecoline Hydrobromide. This agent combines the action of 
the two preceding drugs. 

Therapeutics. 1. Similar to the preceding for action on the 
bowels. 

2. A specific for acute laminitis. 

These drugs are administered hypodermically in most cases. 
Small doses may be given per os to small animals. 

Barium Chloride. 

This is a rapid purgative when given by mouth, and the most 
rapid of all purgatives when administered intravenously. It should 
not be given subcutaneously since it will form an abscess. Barium 
chloride is an intense irritant to the muscular system in general and 
to the gastro-intestinal tract. It will cause purgation in horses in 
one-half to an hour after administration in a drench ; in one to two 
hours if administered in ball ; and within a few minutes following 
intravenous administration. It has been recommended as a rapid- 
acting cathartic for horses in doses of 7% to 15 grains (.5 — 1.) 
intravenously, and is the most rapid purgative known. It is be- 
lieved that its purgative action following intravenous administration 
is due to its excretion in the intestines, which it irritates and thus 
causes increased peristalsis. A great many fatal results have fol- 
lowed the administration of this drug in such large doses and its use 
has been quite largely abandoned. Small or fractional doses are still 
used by some practitioners. In doses of one to two drams (4. — 8.) 
per os barium chloride is followed by good results according to 
some practitioners. For more details of its action see Barium 
p. 357. 

AGENTS ACTING UPON THE RECTUM 

Enemata. These are rectal injections and may be employed 
for cathartic, nutritive or cleansing purposes. Furthermore, they 
may be used to expel gas or to carry remedies to the mucous mem- 
brane of the rectum and possibly colon in some animals. 

The cathartic enemata may be further divided into softening 
agents for the feces and as purgatives. 

The softening agents are water, soapsuds, glycerin, ox gall and 
olive oil. Hertz concluded that water was superior to olive oil, 
equal to ox gall, and that glycerin increased the penetration of the 
water. The best softening enema is probably normal saline solution 
500, and glycerin 15. (1 pint — % oz.). 

The purgative enemata act either by irritating the rectum, or by 
mechanical means. The former consists of small amounts of fluid 
which contain aloes or some other irritant purgative, while the latter 



258 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

consists of soap suds with the addition of % ounce (15 mils) of 
glycerin or oil of turpentine to each pint (500 mils). 

Cannon, in working upon cats, found peristalsis of the small in- 
testine as a result of rectal injection and antiperistalsis of the colon. 

In tests with bland nutritive enemata, of milk, eggs, starch and 
bismuth subnitrate, he found, without exception, that antiperistaltic 
waves carried the material to the cecum. Small enemata never 
passed the ileocecal valve but large ones of the capacity of the large 
intestines would often pass into the small intestines. 

It is interesting to note that in dogs and cats, it is possible 
to pass fluid through the entire digestive tract and to have it 
vomited. This is accomplished by injecting large amounts of saline 
into the rectum of a dog or cat, the animal in the meantime is held 
with the hind parts elevated. Some practitioners are using this 
treatment with apparent success in catarrhal conditions of the gastro- 
intestinal tract, and in food poisoning of the small animals. Where 
evacuations are to be produced quickly, the enema is given rapidly 
and by a sudden distention of the rectum or by direct irritation of 
the bowel-wall results reflexly in active peristalsis, accompanied by 
6 ounces ; tincture of asafcetida V2 ounce to each pint of water. 

The following are most frequently recommended to expel gas. 
Soap suds (from strongly alkaline soap — laundry soap), of soap 
suds 1 pint — turpentine /4 ounce ; or turpentine /4 ounce, olive oil 
6 ounces ; tincture of asafoetida % ounce to each pint of water. 

Rectal or Colon Irrigations consist of saline solution slowly 
administered, two tubes are used, an inlet and outlet. The object is 
to clean out the bowels, stimulate the activity of the kidneys, or to 
supply fluid to the body. 

Murphy recommended for post-operative tympanities and shock 
the continuous drop irrigation, in which an exceedingly small 
amount of saline is kept up day and night. 

Nutritive Enemata. Sometimes it becomes necessary to pro- 
long the life of the animal in those cases in which it is impossible 
to feed the animal through the mouth or inability of the animal to 
retain food in the stomach. The rectum should be cleaned about 
one-half hour before the food is to be administered. These foods 
must be warmed to body temperature and introduced high up but 
without unnecessary pressure. The early discharge may be some- 
what prevented by pressing the tail to the anus or by the addition of 
opium to the enema. For herbivora, thin mashy material may be 
used. Common salt /4 per cent, is said to produce a reverse peri- 
stalsis, which may carry the food higher up and favors its absorp- 
tion. The rectum should be washed once daily to carry out any 
decomposing refuse. The following amounts are recommended for 
one feeding, three to four times daily : Small dogs and cats, 10 — 



ASTRINGENTS 259 

40 mils ; large dogs, 100 — 200 mils ; small ruminants, foals and 
calves, 200—400 mils ; horses and cattle, 2000 — 3000 mils. 
(Jacob.) 

It should be remembered that the mucosa of the rectum can only 
change starch and saccharose into glucose, but has considerable ab- 
sorptive powers, and may therefore absorb water, salts, glucose, pep- 
tone, albumoses and other albuminoid bodies and small amounts of 
emulsified fats. The best adapted for dogs are milk, starch, glucose 
and raw eggs. The amount of glucose should not be over 2 per cent., 
of starch 8 — 10 per cent, of the total amount. 

This enema is prepared by stirring starch and cold water and 
pouring this into boiling water in order to produce a starch jelly. 
To this is added glucose, previously dissolved in hot water. Finally 
two or three eggs stirred up in a little water and salt are slowly 
mixed with the cooled starch paste under constant stirring to insure 
a uniform mixture. 

The digestion and absorption from the rectum of herbivora have 
not been studied with reference to the exact metabolism. Hutyra 
and Marek. 

Rectal suppositories are made of soap, glycerin, wheat-gluten 
and plain or medicated cocoa butter. The evacuant suppositories act 
largely mechanically as a foreign body, stimulating the rectum to 
expel it. A piece of ice or an undisintegrated piece of soap will 
have the same effect. Those made of almost pure glycerin with 
enough sodium stearate to give a solid consistence are much used. 
According to Hertz, the glycerin acts as an irritant to the anal canal 
but not to the rectum. 

Suppositories are most useful when the feces come back to the 
rectum but are retarded in their expulsion by a tight or sensitive 
sphincter. 

8. ASTRINGENTS 

Astringents are agents which cause constriction of the tissues by 
direct action. This action is largely due to the fact that they form 
compounds with the tissue elements which are soluble only under cer- 
tain circumstances. In this way they precipitate albumen as the albu- 
minate, tannate, etc. Some of these albuminates are insoluble in 
water, some soluble in an excess of the proteid, while the tannates are 
insoluble in water, but soluble in an excess of albumen, gelatin, or in 
acetic and lactic acids. The action of the astringents is most marked 
upon mucous membranes or raw surfaces. Some of them also have 
the power to check the secretions of glands, which is chiefly due to 
coagulation or precipitation of the proteids of the cells and some 
shrinkage of the cells by direct action. There may be some action 



260 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

upon the bloodvessels supplying the glands, but this theory is not 
usually given much credence. 

Astringents are divided into two great groups, the vegetable and 
mineral. The former derive their action from their tannic acid 
content, while the latter are for the most part metallic salts. Most 
astringents are also more or less irritant, especially if applied in 
concentration, while some of the metallic members of the group 
are more irritant than astringent. The irritation of the metallic 
astringents is due to various conditions. In one instance it may be 
due to the acid set free when the metal unites with the albumen of 
the tissues, in another, to a very permeable membrane formed by the 
salt, which does not prevent further action, and in still other cases 
to the very toxic action of the metal itself. A few of the mineral 
astringents appear to have a sedative or soothing effect. This is espe- 
cially so of the bismuth salts, zinc oxide, and cerium oxalate. 

General Uses. Astringents are used to 1, check diarrhea; 2, 
reduce inflammation of mucous membranes ; 3, promote healing ; and, 
4, arrest hemorrhage. 

1. Check diarrhea. In this case, the astringents seem to act by 
forming a deposit (tannates, albuminates) along the mucous mem- 
brane of the bowel, which prevents absorption and also the penetra- 
tion of other irritant material, thus overcoming irritation and check- 
ing peristalsis, due to the irritation. At the same time they precipi- 
tate the proteids of the superficial cells of the mucous membrane, 
thus causing a shrinkage of the tissues and stoppage of secretion. 

2. Reduce inflammations of mucous membranes. The mucous 
membranes most accessible for the application of astringents are 
those of the mouth, pharynx, conjunctiva, nose, genito-urinary tract 
and rectum. Tannic acid serves well in these cases, as also do the 
soluble salts of zinc, silver nitrate and alum. The usual strength 
for sprays and mouth washes are % to 1 per cent. ; for the vagina 
or rectum, 1 to 2 per cent. ; conjunctiva and nose, Ys to /4 per cent. 

3. Promote healing. For application upon open wounds, ulcers, 
etc., silver nitrate is very useful, then follow the soluble zinc salts 
and alum. They are usually employed in % to 5 per cent, solutions, 
but may also be used in dusting powders or in ointments (5 per 
cent. ) . Caution should be used in applying some of them, especially 
calomel and the lead salts as dusting powders, since they may be 
absorbed sufficiently to produce toxic effect. Zinc oxide is entirely 
safe and quite efficient. 

4. Arrest hemorrhage. All metallic salts and tannic acid prep- 
arations arrest hemorrhage by precipitating the proteids, which stop 
up the lumen of the small vessels, in a manner similar to normal 
clotting by fibrin. This action will be discussed in detail under the 
head of styptics. 

Principal members of the group of astringents are : 



ACIDUM TANNICUM — TANNIN 261 

Vegetable Astringents. 

Tannic acid Geranium 

Gallic acid Hematoxylon 

Galls Rkois Glabra (Sumac) 

Kino Quercus (Oak bark) 

Krameria Hamamelidis 

Gambir Rubus 

Mineral Astringents. 

Alum Salts of Copper 

Salts of Iron Salts of Bismuth 

Salts of Lead Salts of Silver 

Salts of Zinc Calcium Carbonate 

ACIDUM TANNICUM — TANNIC ACID 

Synonyms. Tannin, Gallotannic acid, Digallic acid 
Tannin is the active constituent of all vegetable astringents. It 
is prepared from nutgalls, which contain from 30 to 60 per cent. It 
occurs as a light yellow amorphous powder, gradually turning darker 
when exposed to light and air, usually adhering in the form of glis- 
tening scales or spongy masses, odorless or of a feebly characteristic 
odor and astringent taste. It is soluble in 0.34 parts of water, 0.23 
of alcohol in 1 part of glycerin, and almost insoluble in absolute 
ether, chloroform or benzine. 

Preparations. 

* Collodium Stypticum 20 per cent. 

Glyceritum Acidi Tannici m 20 per cent. 

Unguentum Acidi Tannici 20 per cent, in benz. lard. 

Trochisci Acidi Tannici, each 1 gr. of tannin. 

B. P. Suppositoria Acidi Tannici, each 3 gr. of tannin. 

Doses. 

Acidum Tannicum. H. 5j — vj ; 4. — 25. D. gr. ij — vij ; 
0.13—0.5. 

Action. Since tannic acid is changed to other products which 
do not have its characteristic action before absorption takes place, 
its action may be described as purely local. It forms a white pre- 
cipitate with neutral solutions of gelatin, or albumen, which are 
entirely insoluble in water, but are soluble in an excess of gelatin 
albumen, lactic or acetic acids. Solutions of peptone are also pre- 
cipitated unless in an acid medium. But if a proteid tannate is 
subjected to the action of the gastric juice, it is digested similarly to 
any coagulated proteid, but the acid is set free during the process of 
digestion and may precipitate other proteids, but this does not take 
place in the acid gastric juice. 

* Unofficial. 



262 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

If applied to animal tissues (as in making leather) which is 
chemically "gelatin tannate," the tissues tend to shrink together, 
become harder and firmer, and less subject to putrefactive changes. 
It is also more flexible than if simply dried. Strong solutions cause 
a dense precipitate of the proteids, which prevent the further pene- 
tration of the solution, while weaker solutions are thought to pene- 
trate more deeply and give a more thorough precipitation of the 
proteids. 

If applied to raw surfaces, tannic acid precipitates the albumen 
of the superficial cells and condenses the tissues just as explained 
above. There is some belief that it also diminishes the sensibility 
of the sensory nerves. It has a similar but stronger action when 
applied to mucous membranes and at the same time dries up the 
secretions by precipitating the proteids of the superficial cells. It 
coagulates blood in a similar manner and serves as a styptic. 

When taken by the mouth, tannic acid or solutions of it have a 
bitter astringent taste, cause a sense of dryness and roughness of the 
mouth and interfere with the movements of the tongue. This action 
is due to a coagulation of the proteids in the epithelial cells and 
possibly to some shrinkage of the cells. The same feeling is pro- 
duced in the throat and some discomfort and nausea, upon its reach- 
ing the stomach, are sometimes shown. Upon reaching the stomach 
it combines with any proteids there and precipitates them, but as 
the stomach contents become acid as digestion progresses, this com- 
bination is broken up, since tannin does not combine with proteids 
in an acid medium. Consequently the acid is free to act upon the 
walls of the stomach and intestine. These it affects in a similar 
manner to the mucosa higher up in the digestive tract. Moderate 
doses are usually followed by firmer feces and some constipation, 
while larger doses may sometimes cause diarrhea on account of the 
irritation. 

Absorption and Elimination. Tannic acid is not absorbed as 
such. It is decomposed into gallic and pyrogallic acids in the in- 
testines, is then absorbed and finally eliminated mainly by the kid- 
neys, as these products. A little is absorbed as sodium tannate but 
the larger proportion undergoes complete oxidation. None of the 
products into which it is decomposed have any astringent properties, 
so the action of tannic acid must be purely local. 

Therapeutics. 1. Locally to check excessive secretion and im- 
part tone to relaxed mucous membranes. In subacute and chronic 
laryngitis, pharyngitis, swollen gums, etc. It is used in these con- 
ditions in solutions of from 1 to 5 grains to the ounce as a spray or 
wash. The glycerite may be of some service as an injection in 
chronic vaginitis, etc. 

2i. Externally in oases of excessive secretions upon wounds, 
ulcers, acute moist eczema, etc., and to toughen the skin. For this 



ANTIDIARRHEALS 263 

purpose it may be used in solution, powder, ointment, glycerite. 
Styptic collodion may be of service. 

3. Hemostatic. It is very efficacious in controlling hemorrhage 
from small vessels when it can be brought in direct contact with the 
bleeding surface. In cases of hematamesis it should be given in full 
doses by the mouth. Since it is not absorbed it is worthless in dis- 
tinct hemorrhages. 

4. Antidote to poisons. It is the chemical antidote to various 
metallic and alkaloidal poisons, since it precipitates these as the in- 
soluble tannates. The precipitate should be immediately removed, 
however, as it is gradually dissolved by the fluids of the intestinal 
tract. 

5. Antidiarrheal. Tannic acid is often used for diarrhea but it 
irritates the stomach, precipitates the albumen in the contents of the 
stomach and is destroyed before reaching the intestine, where it 
should produce its action slowly. For these reasons some of the 
crude drugs which contain tannin in combination with gums and 
resins (which retard their action) are to be preferred, i.e., prepa- 
rations of Gambir, Kino, Krameria, etc. 

ANTIDIARRHEALS 

Antidiarrheals are remedies used to lessen peristalsis. 
Diarrhea is due to digestive disturbances, bacteria, drugs or 
other irritant material. The treatment therefore should be 

1. To remove the cause or irritant material by use of purgatives. 

2. To control the production of the irritation by antiseptics and 
reduction of the diet. 

3. Neutralization of the causative factor if possible. If due to 
acid formation the alkalies work exceedingly well. Chalk, calcium 
phosphate, lime water or charcoal. 

4. To check peristalsis by : 

a. Heat to abdomen or hot drinks. 

b. Astringents. 

c. Drugs, checking peristalsis and secretions by direct action 

upon the nerves (opium and belladonna). 

5. Treat the weakness by giving stimulants, camphor, alcohol, 
etc. The chief astringents used in diarrhea are : 

Vegetable Mineral 

Tannin, etc. Salts of bismuth 

Kino Zinc oxide 

Catechu Silver nitrate 
Gambir 

The Sun Cholera Mixture has been recommended as combining 
the above actions and is very effective in many instances. Its ingre- 
dients are 



264 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

Sun Cholera Mixture. 

Ifc Tincturse Rhei. 
Tincturse Opii. 
Tincturse Capsici. 
Spiritus Camphorse. 
Spiritus Mentha? Piperita? aa. equal parts. 

Dose. 10 drops to a teaspoonful, for a dog with diarrhea. 
Horses and cows. §j — ij ; 30. — 60. 

Since diarrhea has so many causes, remedies of entirely different 
action may be required. In the simple fermentative type, a purga- 
tive like castor oil, followed by a protective such as the bismuth salts, 
may be indicated. 

In severe cases camphor, lead acetate or opium may be the de- 
sired remedy. The remedies most often used are the astringents, 
mineral and vegetable, camphor, opium, castor oil and rhubarb. 

Several combinations have proved -quite generally useful, such as 
Sun Cholera Mixture, K F., Squibb's Diarrhea Mixture, N. F. 
The following prescriptions may be useful: 

Squibb's Diarrhea Mixture. 

3 Tincturse Opii. 

Spiritus Camphorse. 

Tincturse Capsici aa Til xij ; 0.8 

Chlorof ormi 1*1 v ; 0.3 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 3 j ; 4. 

Dose. H. 1 to 2 ounces. D. % dram. 

Diarrhea puppy or cat. 

B Bismuthi Subnitratis 3 iij ; 12. 

Tincturse Opii Camphoratse 3 iv; 15. 

Misturse Cretse q. s ad. I ij ; 60. 

Sig. One-half teaspoonful to dessertspoonful after each movement 
of the bowels according to size. 

R Tincturse Opii. 

Tincturse Rhei. 

Tincturse Catechu (Gambir). 

Spiritus Menthse Piperita? aa. 3 j 

Bismuthi Subnitratis 3 j 

Shake and give 10 drops to teaspoonful to dog with intestinal catarrh. 
Larger doses for the horse. 3 ss— ij. 

TANNIGEN — TANNOFORM, TANOCOL, ETC. 

Many efforts have been made to improve the action of tannin. 
The main objects sought have been to get a preparation that would 
not be acted upon in the stomach, and one that would produce a 
rather slow but continuous action upon reaching the intestine. 
These attempts have resulted in the so-called artificial tannins which 



ACIDUM GALLICUM — GALLIC ACID 265 

are insoluble in water and dilute acids but soluble in alkalies. They 
are all obtained by the precipitation of proteids with tannin. 

Tannalbin is a light brown, tasteless, odorless powder contain- 
ing about 50 per cent, of tannin. It is nothing more than a dried 
tannin albumen precipitate. TailllOCOl is a similar gelatin precipi- 
tate, while tannigen is the acetic ester of tannic acid (acetyl tan- 
nin). Tannopin is formed by a combination of hexamethylen- 
amine (urotropin) and tannin. Tannoform is a similar com- 
pound of tannin with formaldehyde. These are all yellow powders, 
odorless, tasteless and incompatible with alkalies. They are all used 
for their local action upon the intestines, are less liable to produce 
irritation than tannin and may be used interchangeably. Tanno- 
form and tannopin may also be used as astringent dusting powders 
upon open wounds either alone or in combination with starch 1 — 5. 
They are indicated particularly in acute intestinal catarrh after the 
cause of the disease has been entirely removed. Their doses are 
about twice that of tannic acid. 



ACIDUM GALLICUM — GALLIC ACID 

This is the hydrid of tannic acid. It occurs in many plants 
usually along with tannin. It is prepared by boiling tannic acid 
with weak acids, occurs as pale fawn colored, silky needles, odorless, 
of an astringent taste, and permanent in air. It is soluble in 83.7 
parts of water, 4.14 parts of alcohol, and 12 of glycerin. It differs 
from tannic acid in not precipitating gelatin or albumen. 

Action and Uses. Externally it is an astringent but much 
weaker than tannic acid. It does not coagulate blood so cannot serve 
as a styptic. Gallic acid has been recommended as a hemostatic in 
hemorrhages that can be reached by the circulation but its reputa- 
tion for this action is entirely without foundation as it is absorbed 
and eliminated unchanged and does not possess such an action even 
when applied locally. It is occasionally of service in reducing the 
amount of urine in diabetes insipidus or polyurea. 

It is incompatible with ferric salts, tartar emetic, lead acetate, 
silver nitrate and spirits of nitrous ether. 

Doses same as tannic acid. 



GALLA — GALLS 

Synonyms. Nut Galls, Smyrna Galls 

Nutgalls is the excresences on the leaves of an oak, Quercus in- 
fectoria, caused by the punctures and deposited ova of a wasp 
(Cynips tinctoria). This particular oak grows in countries bor- 
dering on the Mediterranean. The activity is due to tannic acid 
of which it contains, from 30 to 60 per cent. 



266 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

Preparations and Doses. 

Galla 5 ij — iv; 8 — 16. 

* Tinctura Galla? 20 per cent. 
Unguentum Galla? 20 per cent. 

* Unguentum Galla? cum Opii B. P. 7% per cent, opium. 

Galls and its preparations are little used internally. The oint- 
ment with equal parts of stramonium ointment or as the British 
official is often very serviceable in painful hemorrhoids. 

KINO 

Kino is official as the spontaneously dried juice of Pterocarpus 
Marsupium, a large tree of India. 
Preparations. 

Kino H. § ss— j; 15.— 30. D. gr. v— xxx; 0.3—2. 
Tinctura Kino D, 3 % — j ; 2. — 4. 

* Fluidextract H. % ss — j ; 2. — 4. D. xv — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 

* Tinctura Kino Compositus B. P. 5 per cent, of opium. 

* KRAMERIA 

Synonym,. Rhatany 

This is the root of Krameria triandra, a low shrub of the moun- 
tains of Peru and Bolivia. It contains about 20 per cent, of a 
peculiar tannic acid, " Krameria-tannic acid." 

Preparations. 

* Extractum Krameria?. A dried watery extract. H. 5 ij — 

iij; 8.— 12. D. grs. v— x; 0.3—0.6. 

* Fluidextractum Kramerise. H. § ss — j. D. TTL v — xx; 

0.3—1.3. 

* Tinctura Krameria?. H. § j — ij. D. 5 ss — ij. 

* Syrupus Krameria? 45 per cent, of fluidextract. 

* Trochisci Krameria? each 1 grain. 

GAMBIR 

This is an extract prepared from the leaves and twigs of Ourou- 
paria Gambir, a climber of the East Indies. It was introduced into 
the pharmacopoeia of 1890 to replace catechu on account of the scarc- 
ity of that drug. It contains from 33 to 47 per cent, of catechu- 
tannic acid, catechin, etc. 

Preparations. 

Gambir. Double those of Tannic acid. 

Tinctura Gambir Compositus (5 per cent, of gambir, 2.5 
per cent, of Cinnamon). Dog. 5 ss — j ; 2. — 4. 

* Trochisci, Gambir. Each 1 grain. 
* Unofficial. 



HEMATOXYLON 267 

CATECHU B. P. 

This is the extract of leaves and shoots of Uncaria Gambir. 
Contains about 45 per cent, of catechu-tannic acid. It has been re- 
placed in the U. S. P. by the preceding. Dose same as Gambir. 

The above mentioned drugs are similar in action, all contain 
large amounts of tannic acid to which their action is due. They 
are often preferred to tannic acid in diarrheas as their action is 
brought about more slowly and is more lasting. This difference in 
rapidity and persistence of action from tannin is due to the pres- 
ence- of gums and resins, in the preparations of the crude drugs, 
which retard the breaking up of the acid content. They should 
never be used in the early stages of diarrhea, until the irritant has 
been completely removed by a purgative or unless purgation persists 
after the removal of the irritant. They are often prescribed with 
chalk or opium as in the following formula : 

Diarrhea. 

R Tincture Opii m xx- 1.3 

Cretae Praeparata? 3 ij - 8. 

Tincturae Kramerae 3 ij - 8. 

Acaciae q. s. 

Aquae Cinnamomi q. s ad. 3 iij-90. 

M. et Fiat Solutio. 

Sig. Dram doses for dog. Ounce or two ounce doses for horse every 
2 to 3 hours. 

* GERANIUM 

Synonym. Cranesbill 

This is the rhizomes of Geranium Maculatum, a perennial of 
the woody places of jS^orth America. It contains from 10 to 28 
per cent, of tannic acid. 

Action and Uses. It is equivalent in action and uses to the 
preceding drugs but is more agreeable. 

Fluidextractum Geranii. D. til x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. 

* HEMATOXYLON 

Synonym. Logwood 
The heart wood of Hematoxylon Campechianum, a small tree 
of Central America and the West Indies. It contains tannic acid 
and a crystalline red coloring principle, hematoxylin. 

Extractum Hematoxyli. Evaporated watery decoction. H. 

3 ss— iv; 2.— 15. D. gr. v— xv; 0.3—1. 
Fluidextractum Hematoxyli. H. § ss — ij '■> ^ — 60. D. Tl\ 

xv— xlv; 1. — 3. 

* Unofficial. 



268 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

This is used as an astringent in the diarrheas of the young. It 
is less active than kino^ krameria, or gambir, but more pleasant 
on account of its sweetish taste. The coloring matter is eliminated 
by the urine which it stains red. This coloring matter is not used 
in medicine. 

* RHUS GLABRA 

Synonym. Sumac 

This is official as the fruit of Rhus Glabra, a shrub growing in 
the waste places of North America. It contains from 6 to 27 per 
cent, of tannic acid and several mallates. 

Fluidextr actum Bhois Glabrae. D. Tl\ xxx — lx; 2. — 4. 

Uses. This drug is never used internally but the fluid extract 
diluted with 6 to 8 parts of water is an efficient mouth wash in 
stomatitis and acute pharyngitis. It is frequently prescribed with 
small amounts of potassium chlorate as in the following prescrip- 
tion. 

Mouth wash. 

B Potassii Chlorati 3 j ; 4, 

Fluidextracti Rhois Glabra 3 j ; 30. 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 viij ; 250. 

Use as wash in stomatitis or pharyngitis. 

* QUERCUS 

Synonym. White oak bark 

This is the bark of the ordinary white oak, Quercus alba, a tree 
indigenous to North America, east of the Mississippi. It contains 
5 to 10 per cent, of tannin and a bitter, quercin. 

Uses. Used entirely externally. Usually as a decoction in the 
strength of § j to O.j of water, as an injection in leucorrhoea, 
pharyngitis, etc. 

* HAMAMELIS 

Synonym. Witch-hazel 

This is official as the folia (leaves) and cortex (bark) of Hama- 
melis Virginiana, a widely distributed shrub of North America. 
It contains tannin and a volatile oil. 

Preparations. 

From the leaves. 

* Fluidextractum Hamamelides Foliorum, 8 per cent, tannin. 
H- 5 3— ij I 30.— 60. D. 3 ss— ij ; 2.-8. 
From the bark. 
* Unofficial. 



RUBUS 269 

Aqua Hamamelidis, a watery distillate to which is added 15 
per cent, of alcohol. 

The nuidextract contains tannin, a volatile oil and a bitter. 
Witch hazel has been variously claimed to be an astringent, hemo- 
static, and sedative, but these claims have not been based upon 
experimental data. The water is a household remedy for the 
treatment of burns, strains, bruises, etc., but it appears that its 
action is overrated. It is sedative to painful hemorrhoids. Both 
preparations have been recommended for internal hemorrhages but 
it is of exceedingly doubtful value. 

* RUBUS 

Synonym. Blackberry 

The bark of the root of Rubus Villosus, nigrobaccus or cunei- 
folius. 

The syrup and fluid extract were formerly official. The doses of 
the former are D. 1P L x — lx, and the latter, Tit x — xx. 

Rubus is simply used as a substitute for other astringents in 
intestinal catarrh. 

The mineral astringents will be discussed in another place. 

ASTRINGENTS 

Diarrhea in Foals up to a Week Old. 

B Olei Ricini jj> j 

Mucilaginis Acacise q. s. 

Olei Piperita? TTL v 

Aquae q. s act I ij 

M. Ft. Haustus. 

Sig. Give at one dose. In older foals double the quantity of castor 
oil. 

Persistent Diarrhea in Foals. 

H Catechu § iij 

Cretse Prseparatae § iij 

Spiritus Ammonia? Aromatici o ij 

Tincturse Opii 3 j 

Aqua? Mentha? Piperita? q. s ad. I xij 

M. 

Sig. Give one to two ounces as needed in a little of the mare's milk. 
Hoare. 

Diarrhea in Cattle. 

5 Opii 3 v j 

Catechu 3 ij 

Cretse Praecipitati E iij 

Zingiberis % iij 

* Unofficial. 



870 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

M. Divide in Chart. No. 3. 

Sig. One every twelve hours in a pint of flour gruel until diarrhea 
ceases. 

Diarrhea in Puppies. 

B Bismuthi Subnitratis 3 ij 

Tincturse Opii Camphoratse 3 j 

Hucilaginis Acacise 3 jss 

Aquae Chlorofornii q. s ad. B iij 

M. 

Sig. One-half to one teaspoonful every three hours until diarrhea is 
checked. 

9.' ANTHELMINTICS — WORM REMEDIES 

Anthelmintics are agents used to kill or expel intestinal parasites. 
They are sometimes divided into vermicides which kill the parasites, 
and vermifuges which expel them, but for practical purposes this 
distinction is unimportant. According to this method of division 
they may be grouped as follows: 

Vermicides. 

Aspidium Kamala Thymol 

Chenopodium Turpentine Beta-naphthol 

Cusso Pepo Antimony and Potas- 

Granatum Santonin sium Tartrate (Tar- 

Quassia tar Emetic) 

Chloroform 

Vermifuges. 

Calomel Spigelia Hydrogogue Cathartics 

Vermicides may be further divided according to the particular 
type of worm for which they are effective, as, 
Tsenicides (Tapeworm remedies). 

Aspidium Cusso (Kusso) 

Granatum (Pelletierine) Turpentine 

Kamala Areca Nut 

Pepo Chloroform 

Hook Worms (UncinariaJ. 

Thymol, Beta-naphthol and Chenopodium. 

Round Worms (Santonin Group). 

Santonin Turpentine 

Spigelia Calomel 

Chenopodium Tartar Emetic 

Chloroform Hydrogogue Cathartics 

Pin Worms (Oxyures). 

Santonin or other vermicide per os, followed by enemata of 
quassia, vinegar, lime water or solution of sodium chloride. 



VERMICIDES AND VERMIFUGES 271 

There are many drugs not included in the above groups which 
are occasionally used as anthelmintics but as they possess other 
more important and typical actions they are discussed in other places. 
Only those drugs which have no other therapeutic action will be 
discussed here. 

Action of Vermicides and Vermifuges. The ideal anthel- 
mintic should kill or stupefy the parasites but not irritate the 
gastro-intestinal tract of the host or be absorbed in sufficient 
amount to produce harm to the host. ISTo such parasiticide has 
as yet been found that fulfills these requirements and all are 
capable of producing disastrous effects if not used cautiously and 
none of them is of certain action upon the parasite. The remedy, 
however, must be capable of penetrating the outer covering of the 
parasite, so that volatile poisons whose vapors permeate the in- 
testinal canal, penetrate the covering of the parasite and kill or 
stupefy it, before absorption takes place by the host, fill this require- 
ment. In many cases the absorption is retarded by the presence of a 
fixed oil which exists along with the volatile oil. A volatile para- 
siticide is often combined with a fixed oil simply to retard the ab- 
sorption of the anthelmintic. On the other hand preparations of 
volatile substances are always unstable and some uncertainty always 
accompanies their use. 

In some cases the parasite seems to show a peculiar susceptibil- 
ity to certain poisons. For instance, pelletierine in very dilute 
solution (1 — 10,000) will kill tape worms, while santonin is more 
toxic to the round varieties. 

Active catharsis is a factor in the removal of the parasite but is 
not sufficient alone, because, if in good condition, the worms are able 
to move against peristalsis or to attach themselves to the walls of the 
intestines. 

Before the administration of a vermicide the intestinal canal 
should be emptied so far as possible by fasting the animal for from 
12 to 24 hours or by allowing only a light easily digested diet. This 
procedure weakens the worms and prevents the contents of the in- 
testines from diluting the medicine or protecting the worms. A 
purgative should always accompany or follow an anthelmintic be- 
cause the worms are rarely killed and would recover if left in the 
intestine. Croton and castor oil are often prescribed as the purga- 
tive although, according to Poulsson, castor oil should not be ad- 
ministered with aspidium because it tends to aid its solubility and 
absorbability. Other authorities dispute this and claim that oils aid 
in the solution of the active principles ; but the records show that in 
most cases of poisoning in man, the remedy has been administered 
with or followed by castor oil. 



m SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

TiENICIDES 
ASPIDIUM 

Synonyms. Male Fern, Male Shield Fern, Filix Mas 

Parts Used. The dried rhizomes of Dryopteris filix mas and 
Dryopteris marginalis, ferns indigenous to North America, a portion 
of South America, Northern Asia and portions of Africa. It con- 
tains a fixed oil, a volatile oil, a resin and filicic acid, besides a 
number of neutral and acid bodies chief of which are Aspidinin, 
Flavospadic Acid, Albaspidin and Aspidinal (Boehm) to which 
Kraft has added Filmaron and Flavaspidinin. All the principles 
appear to be necessary but it is generally believed that filicic acid 
is the most toxic to taenia, and therefore the most active part of the 
drug. This changes in time to its inert anhydrid filicin. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Oleoresina Aspidii. H. 3 iij — vj ; 12. — 24. D. gr. xv — xc; 
1.— 6. Cat. iij— viij; 0.2—0.5. 

Action. When administered as a vermicide there is usually no 
symptom except the expulsion of the worm. However, if toxic doses 
are given or if the drug is administered in castor oil or other 
substances which aid its absorption it may produce poisonous symp- 
toms manifested especially by nervous phenomena and gastroin- 
testinal disturbances. There may be nausea, vomiting, colicky pains 
and diarrhea. These are associated with nervous disorders, as de- 
pression, coma, increased reflexes, weak pulse, superficial respira- 
tions, convulsions and collapse together with temporary blindness 
due to paralysis of the retina. 

Therapeutics. As a tamicide especially for the unarmed vari- 
ety, although it is used with good results against both varieties of 
the parasite. 

2. As a parasiticide in the treatment of follicular mange. 

Administration. Aspidium should be administered in a cap- 
sule or pill upon an empty stomach and followed by a purgative. 
It may be necessary to anesthetize the stomach with cocaine Q/z 
grain in 20 minims of water) to prevent vomiting. It is often 
advantageously combined with some other tsenicide, such as areca 
nut, kamala, or turpentine. 

The following prescriptions are representative of its use : 

No. 1. Tapeworms in Dog. 

B Oleoresinse Aspidii grs. xxx 

Arecse Seminis ^ jss 

Chloroformi ni xv 

Mueilaginis Acacise 3 j 

M. Ft. Solutio. - 



GRANATUM — POMEGRANATE 273 

Sig. Give at one dose. Follow with a purgative. Repeat treatment 
in 48 hours if necessary. 

No. 2. Follicular Mange, Dog. 

R Oleoresinse Aspidii 50 - 

Creolini ^0. 

Balsami Peruviani «"■ 

Alcoholis 50 °- 

M. Pt. Sol. ,.-,*', 

Sig. Apply once daily to affected parts or one-third of the body. 

GRANATUM 

Synonyms. Pomegranate, Granatum Cortex, Pomegranate Bark. 

Parts Used. The bark of the stem and root of Punica Grana- 
tum, cultivated in subtropical countries. 

Constituents. Pomegranate contains two active liquid alkaloids, 
Pelletierine or Punicine and Isopelletierine. Besides these there 
are also two less active alkaloids and a large amount of tannic acid 
(punico-tannic acid). Pelletierine tannate U. S. P. is a mixture 
in varying proportions of the tannates of four alkaloids (punicine, 
isopunicine, methyl-punicine and pseudo-punicine), obtained from 
pomegranate. It should be kept in small well-stoppered, dark am- 
ber-colored vials. 

Doses. 



Granatum. D. 5 ss — ij ; 2. 
Pluidextractum Granati 5 ss — ij ; 2. — 4. 
Pelletierinse Tannas. D. grs. ij — iv; 0.13 — 0.26. 

Local Action. Externally and locally it is astringent on ac- 
count of the large amount of^ (punico) tannic acid present but is 
never used for this action. 

Internally. Small or medicinal doses show no appreciable ef- 
fect upon the animal except some slight nausea, in animals which 
vomit, and the passage of the worm. Large doses of the crude 
drug, especially, are followed by gastro-intestinal irritation, shown 
by abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and purging. This action is 
largely due to the tannic acid contained in the crude drug and conse- 
quently the administration of the alkaloid is not attended by so 
much irritation. 

There are also exhibited after administration of large doses, 
certain nervous disturbances, consisting of increased reflex excit- 
ability, dullness, loss of coordination and weakness of the limbs. 
Pelletierine and isopelletierine have a specific action upon tape 
worms. Schroeder found that a 1—10,000 solution would kill them 
in 10 minutes, while even stronger solutions had but little if any 
effect upon other intestinal parasites. 



274 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

Therapeutics. Granatum and its alkaloids are used entirely 
as a remedy against tapeworms. 

Administration. A decoction of the fresh grated or ground 
bark, % dram in 8 ounces of water, may be used, but since this is 
liable to produce undesirable results, see above, and as the alkaloids 
are liable to decompose unless the bark is fresh, the alkaloidal salt 
should be preferred. If the alkaloid (pelletierine) is used, it should 
be given with four times its weight of tannic acid. Animals should 
be treated the same as in case of aspidium, before administering the 
drug, and a purgative should be given within % to 2 hours after 
the administration. 

* KAMALA 
Synonym. Eottlera 

Parts Used. The glauds and hairs from the capsules of Mal- 
loius philippinensis, a small tree indigenous to India, China and 
the Philippines. The active principle appears to be rottlerin. 

Action and Uses. Kamala is irritant to the gastro-intestinal 
tract often causing vomiting. It also possesses strong purgative 
action, so need not be combined with or followed by a purgative. 
Its action is usually produced within 5 hours. 

It is used entirely as a remedy against tapeworms. 

Doses. Swine and Dogs. 3 ss — ij ; 2. — 8. Lambs. 5 j ; 4. 
Cats gr. x — xv ; 0.6 — 1. 

Administration. It should be given in milk, honey, syrup, 
infusion or capsule. If given in solution to dogs or cats, it should 
be administered through a stomach tube. 

R Kamake 3 ijss 

Arecse Seminis * v 

Olei Theobromatis q. s. 
Fiant pilulse No. xxv. 

Obduce Keratino. 
Sig. 6-15 pills for a dog. 
(Schiel). 

R Oleoresinse Aspidii. 

Kamalse aa. 3 ss— ij 

Ft. Capsulse No. 2. 

Sig. Give both at one dose to a dog with tapeworms. 

* cusso 

Synonym. Kousso, Brayera 

Parts Used. The female inflorescence of Hygenia dbyssinica, 
an ornamental tree in Abyssinia. The male flowers of the tree are 
strongly emetic but are not used in medicine. 

* Unofficial. 



PEPO — PUMPKIN SEED 275 

Doses. Sheep and Swine. § ss — ij ; 15. — 60. Lambs. 5 
J— ij 5 4.-8. Dogs. 5 j— ij ; 4—8. 

Action and Uses. Kousso contains a yellow amorphous active 
principle, kussotoxin, a resin and a volatile oil. The first mentioned 
is probably the most active. It has no appreciable effect except to 
cause nausea in medicinal doses. Overdoses resemble those of 
aspidium. Its only use is that of a tsenicide. It is usually not 
necessary to follow with a purgative but should be followed by 
one if purgation does not take place within 6 to 8 hours. 

PEPO 

Synonym. Pumpkin Seed 

Parts Used. This is the seed of the common pumpkin (Cur- 
curb ita Pepo). 

Action and Uses. The seeds contain a fixed oil and a resin. 
They have been used with good results as a tamicide and by some are 
given second place to aspidium. Power and Salway were unable to 
find any tsenicide properties in the seeds. Pepo has no appreciable 
effect upon animals even in large doses and the only therapeutic use 
is that of a ticnicide. 

Dose. D. % j— iij ; 30.— 90. 

Administration. The seed should be suspended in an emul- 
sion, made into an infusion, or beaten into a paste with sugar and 
diluted with milk. They should be followed by a purgative. 

Early Bird Tapeworm Remedy. Human. 

$ Peponis 3 ij ; 8. 

Granati. 

Cusso aa. 3 j ; 4. 

Aquae Bullentis q. s ad. % j ; 30. 

Ft. infusum, cole et add. 

Oleoresinse Aspidii 3 j ; 4. 

Kamalae 3 j ; 4. 

Glycerini 3 iv ; 2. 

Mucilaginis Acacise 3 ss ; 2. 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 viij ; 240. 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. One-half statim, one-half in three hours. 

OTHER T^NICIDES 

Turpentine. This drug is discussed in detail on page 301. 
It has long been used as a vermicide against both varieties of worms, 
but on account of its irritant action upon the stomach and kidneys 
is not used so much as formerly. It answers fairly well for horses 
and hogs. It should be given to the former in raw linseed oil and 
to the latter in milk. As a remedy against tapeworms it is usually 



276 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

combined with Aspidium. Turpentine is too irritating to the stom- 
ach and intestines to be of service in canine work unless properly 
diluted or combined with other drugs. See after Chenopodium. 

Chloroform, Thymol and Betanaphthol have not been used suffi- 
ciently to determine their value as tsenicides. 

ROUND WORM GROUP 

Many of the remedies used against tapeworms are also effective 
for the round varieties. The same dietary measures and subsequent 
purging should be followed as outlined under tapeworms. 

* SANTONICA 

Synonyms. Levant Wormseed, Cinse Flores 

Parts Used. The dried unexpanded flower heads of Artemisia 
pauciflora, a perennial shrub of Turkestan. The dose for the dog 
is 10 — 60 grains but the use of the crude drug has been practically 
abandoned in favor of its glucoside, santoninum. 

SANTONINUM 

Synonym. Santonin 
Properties. This occurs as colorless crystals when first pre- 
pared but assumes a yellowish color on exposure to light. This, 
however, does not seem to affect its activity to any appreciable ex- 
tent but should be avoided by keeping santonin in amber colored 
bottles. 

Doses. H. 3 j— ij ; 4.-8. D. gr. j— iij ; .065—0.2. Cat. 
Yio— %; 0.006—0.03. 

Preparation. * Trochisci Santonini. Each contains % grain 
of santonin. 

Action. Santonin in moderate doses has no appreciable physio- 
logical action upon the host. It is probably the best remedy we 
possess against round worms but is not so effective for the tape or 
hook worms. The action of this drug is not well understood. When 
worms are placed in solutions of it they do not die but move more 
vigorously. It is generally believed to be very irritating to them 
but not necessarily fatal and that santonin drives the worms to the 
large intestine from which they may be easily removed by a purga- 
tive. They are often expelled in a very active condition. 

Santonin is practically insoluble in water but undergoes some 
change in the digestive tract so that part is absorbed and in some 
cases peculiar conditions are produced even by small doses. The 
most common symptoms following its administration in man is a 
disturbance in vision (xanthopsia) or yellow vision, so that every- 

* Unofficial. 



SANTONINUM — SANTONIN 277 

thing appears to have a yellow color. Santonin is excreted by the 
kidneys and intestines. Small doses impart a yellow color to the 
normal urine and in some pathological conditions, with a strongly 
alkaline urine, as in cystitis, may produce such a deep color as to 
suggest hematuria. 

Large doses are dangerous and may be fatal. The symptoms 
are quite uniform in animals so that only those seen in the dog will 
be described. The first distinct symptom in this animal is a twitch- 
ing of the muscles of the head, followed by rolling of the eyes, grind- 
ing of teeth, rotation of the head, together with flexion and extension 
of the neck. Later epileptiform convulsions occur with the body 
first in opisthotonus, followed by clonic spasms of the limbs and 
trunk. Intermittent with the spasms are periods of rest during 
which a peculiar contraction of all the muscles may be seen. The 
respirations are disturbed during the convulsions and asphyxia may 
occur in fatal cases. Temporary blindness may follow (Cushny). 

Treatment. Empty the stomach with an emetic or stomach 
pump, then administer large doses of epsom salts. Control the con- 
vulsions with ether or chloroform. 

Therapeutics. Santonin is used almost entirely as a remedy 
for round worms in the dog and cat, as its price prohibits its use to 
any extent in the large animals. The bowels should be emptied be- 
fore its administration and the drug should be followed by a purga- 
tive to carry out the sick worms. Calomel is frequently adminis- 
tered with santonin as it is believed to increase the action of that 
drug. Others recommend its use with castor oil. 

The following prescriptions are representative of its use: 

For Dogs. 
No. 1. 

R Santonini 0.3> 

Olei Olivse 50.0 

Solvi Leni Galore. 

Sig. Teaspoonful for small. Tablespoonful for large, 3 or 4 times 
daily. 

No. 2. 

B Santonini. 

Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis . '. aa. gr. ss 

M. Ft. Pilluke. 

Sig. One tablet every 3 hours for 3 doses, followed by a dose of 
castor oil. 

No. 3. For Hogs. 

*> Santonini g rs . v iij 

Hydrargyri Chloridi Mitis grs. v 

M. et Ft. Pulveris. For 100 pounds of swine. 

Sig. Mix well with the feed, give two doses daily for two days, then 
skip a few days and repeat. 



278 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

* CHENOPODIUM 

Synonym. American Wormseed 

Parts Used. The fruit of Cheno podium ambrosioides anthel- 
minticum, a perennial herb grown in the United States and the West 
Indies. It contains a volatile oil (Oleum Chenopodii) to which its 
action is due. 

Doses. 

Chenopodium. H. not used. D. grs. xv — xxx; 1. — 2. 
Oleum Chenopodii. H. 5 j — iij ; 4 — 12. D. n\ j — vij ; 
0.065—0.5. Cat. ill ss— iij ; 0.03—0.2. 

Action and Uses. Both the powdered drug and the oil are effi- 
cient anthelmintics when used against round worms and hook worms. 
The oil is used almost exclusively and should be given upon sugar, 
made into an emulsion, or in capsules, three times daily, followed 
by a cathartic every other day. Oil of chenopodium has been used 
successfully in the treatment of hook worms in man. 

R Olei Chenopodii ms. xvj 

Olei Terebinthinse ms. ij 

Olei Anisi ms. xvj 

Olei Ricini 3 iijss 

Olei Olivse 3 iij 

M. et heat gently. 

Sig. Full sized or medium puppies under six weeks one-half tea- 
spoonful in a little milk. Six weeks old, one teaspoonful. 
Eight weeks old, one teaspoonful repeated in one hour. For 
small or toy puppies reduce the dose to V4-V2 the above. 

Follow with a purge in each case if the bowels do not move in 
one hour. Repeat in a few days if necessary. Hoare. 

SPIGELIA 

Synonym. Pink Root 

Parts Used. The rhizomes and roots of Spigelia marilandica, 
a perennial herb growing in southern United States. 

Constituents. It contains a volatile oil, tannic acid, a bitter 
principle, and an alkaloid, spigeline. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Spigelian. Mature Dogs. TTX xv — iv; 1. — 4. 

Action. Spigelia is a reasonably safe and efficient remedy for 
round worms if reasonable care is taken in its administration. 
Toxic doses cause excitement, swelling of the eyelids, dilatation of 
the pupils, dimness of vision and stupor. It should always be com- 
bined with a brisk cathartic as in the following prescription: 

* Unofficial. 



SEMEN ARECiE — ARECA NUT 279 

Ifc Fluidextracti Spigeliae. 
Fluidextracti Sennse. 
Syrupi Aurantii. 
Syrupi Glycyrrhizae aa. til xxx 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. Every other morning- for three doses for a medium sized dog. 

* SEMEN AREO&: 

Synonyms. Areca nut, Betel nut, Areca catechu 
Parts Used. The fruit of Areca catechu, an East Indian tree 
belonging to the family of palms. 

Constituents. Areca nut contains three alkaloids, arecoline, 
arecaine, and traces of guvacine together with a considerable amount 
of tannic and gallic acids, a fixed oil, volatile oil and a gum. Are- 
coline is the most important constituent and is present in about the 
proportion of 0.1 per cent, in the crude drug. It occurs as a color- 
less, volatile, oily liquid and forms soluble salts with acids. The 
hydrobromide (Arecolinse Hydrobroinidum) is the one most used. 
This salt is permanent in air and in aqueous solution retains its 
action for several months. 

Arecoline has been discussed on p. 208. 

Doses. Horses. % iij — viij ; 100. — 250. Foals. 5ijss — ~;ij 5 
10. — 60. Dogs. 3 j — ijss; 5. — 10. Sheep and Swine. 
3 j — iv; 5. — 15. Cats. 3 ss — j; 2. — 5. 

Action and Uses. Areca nut is an anthelmintic for all animals 
but especially for dogs suffering from either tape or round worms. 
The worms are usually expelled in from 3 to 5 hours. This drug 
has no physiological action except that of a weak astringent on ac- 
count of the large amount of tannic acid it contains, and some irri- 
tation of the stomach which causes nausea and vomiting unless given 
with care. It is not considered very safe for young puppies, for 
dogs in a weak condition or for cats. 

Administration. Areca nut should be freshly ground or grated 
in all cases. It should be administered to dogs and cats in capsule, 
keratin coated pills or mixed well with butter to prevent nausea and 
vomiting. The usual dose for the dog is 1 — 2 grains per pound of 
body weight and slightly less for cats. It should be preceded and 
followed by a purgative in these animals. 

Fuchs recommends the drug for tapeworms in the horse. He 
prescribes or dispenses 1000.0 gm. (2 lbs.) and directs that two 
tablespoonfuls be given three times daily in feed. Claussen recom- 
mends it in daily doses of 15.0 — 20.0 gm. (3 iv — v) for ascarides in 
six months old foals, while Frohner has found it safe in daily doses 
of 250.0 gms. (§ viij) for horses and 500.0 gms. (§ xvj) for cattle. 
Some clinicians have recommended the alkaloid (arecoline hydro- 

* Unofficial. 



280 SPECIFICS FOR THE ALIMENTARY TRACT 

bromide) as a vermicide for both round and tape worms of dogs in 
oral doses of V12 — 1. grain. The larger doses, however, cause a 
considerable amount of depression and pain and at the same time are 
not always successful. The following prescriptions illustrate its 
use: 

No. 1. Dog. 

R Seminis Arecse 3 ijss ; 10.0 

Olei Theobromatis et. 

Cerse Flavse q. s. 
M. Ft. Pilulse No. XX. 

Abduce Keratino. 
Sig. Give at one dose for a dog with tapeworms. 

No. 2. Dog. 

R Seminis Arecse 3 v ; 20. 

Kamalse 3 ijss ; 10. 

M. Ft. Capsuke No. IV. 

Sig. Give at one dose to a large dog with tapeworms. 

No. 3. Sheep. 

R Seminis Arecse § ij ', 60.0 

Arseni Trioxidi * j ; 4.0 

Sulphuris 3 ij ; 60.0 

M. Ft. Chartulse No. VI. 

Sig. One in salt each day for 20 yearlings. 

No. 4. Lambs. 

R Seminis Arecse 3 j 

Aquae § ij 

M. 

Sig. Shake and give such a dose to each lamb. 

No. 5. Horses. 

5- Seminis Arecse lb ij 

Sig. 2 tablespoonfuls three times daily in feed. 

Fuchs. 

FOR HOOK WORMS — UNCINARXA 

Thymol. This is probably the best agent for the treatment of 
uncinaria (hookworms). It is described in detail in another place 
p. 458. It should be given in daily doses of 10 — 30 grains, aver- 
age for the dog, 10 grains. The animal undergoing treatment 
should be closely observed and upon the appearance of any unde- 
sirable symptoms the drug should be withdrawn. Some recommend , 
a good dose, one day each week, preceded and followed by a purga- 
tive. 

Betanaphthol has given good success in some cases. It should 
be given the same as thymol but in half the doses. It is dangerous 
for doss and cats. 



REMEDIES FOR LUNG WORMS 281 

Oleum Chenopodii has been used with some success in human 
practice but has not been proved serviceable in veterinary medicine. 

PINWORMS (OXJURES) 

Treatment for pinworms should include the administration of a 
vermicide per os, followed by an enema of infusion of quassia, solu- 
tion of vinegar or salt. It is best to empty the rectum by an 
enema of water before injecting either of the above solutions. 

LUNG WORMS — STRONGYLUS FILARIA 

The treatment for these parasites, with the exceptions of vari- 
ous prophylactic and dietetic measures, is of doubtful value. Theo- 
retically, for the best results, the agents should be volatile, nonirri- 
tating, and be injected through the trachea or administered as a 
spray. Some authorities claim good results with various agents, 
others deny that any good can be accomplished in the direct applica- 
tion of the drugs or treatment of the worms and lay special stress 
upon prevention. Oil of turpentine serves well in many cases and 
is well adapted for this purpose. The following have also been recom- 
mended: Phenol in 1 per cent, aqueous solution, doses 20 — 30 mils 
(5 4 — 8) ; potassium picrate in 1 per cent, solution, dose 5v — ^ij 
20. — 60.0 mils, according to age and size of the animals. Sodium 
chloride 1 per cent, sterile solution, may be injected in relatively 
large doses ; iodine in potassium iodide has been recommended by 
some. Benzine and olive oil, of each equal parts, dose 3 ij — iij 
for sheep; calves, 5 ij — iv; or, according to Law, benzine is most 
reliable in 1 dram doses for sheep. 

J$ Olei Terebinthinse. 

Olei Olivas aa. 100.0 

Creolini 10.0 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Sheep, 5 mils; calves, 15 to 20 mils, to be repeated twice. 

B Creosoti 20.0 

Olei Olivaa 100.0 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Dose, 5 mils for sheep; 15-20 mils for calves. Repeat in 4 



B Iodi 2.0 

Potassii Iodidi 10.0 

Aquae q. s ad. 100.0 

Sig. One-half dram increased gradually up to 5 drams for sheep. 



CHAPTER XII 
VOLATILE OIL GROUP 

ESSENTIAL OILS 

This group contains a large number of essential oils which are 
obtained from plants by distillation, or more rarely by expression, 
and should be distinguished from the Fixed or Fatty oits, which are 
non-volatile. The volatile oils are found very largely in the fruits, 
leaves, flowering parts and seeds of plants and are widely scattered 
throughout the vegetable kingdom. These oils are all extremely 
odorous and are therefore used to overcome nauseous odors and 
tastes of medicine, for flavors and in toilet preparations. (They 
are mainly objectionable to animals.) 

The composition of volatile oils is extremely variable. The 
most common constituents are terpenes and some contain only these, 
while in a few no terpene has been found. Terpenes may be briefly 
defined as hydrocarbons of the aromatic series possessing the general 
formula (C 5 H 8 )n. 

Characteristics. Volatile oils are generally clear, colorless 
fluids, although a few of them may be green from the presence of 
small quantities of vegetable coloring matter, while others are blue 
from the presence of a terpene derivative (azulene). Upon long 
standing they may acquire a yellowish color and an acid reaction from 
the formation of resins. Most of these oils are light fluids but those 
of copaiba and cubebs are more viscid. They are freely soluble in 
alcohol, ether, chloroform and the fixed oils but only slightly soluble 
in water. Many plants from which these oils are derived also con- 
tain other principles, as bitters, but as many of the preparations used 
in therapeutics are formed from the crude drug and not the oil, it 
must be remembered that the oil may not be the only active prin- 
ciple of a plant. 

Although they differ quite widely in chemical composition, their 
actions are sufficiently common to be discussed as a group. 

External and Local Action. All volatile oils possess antisep- 
tic properties which are probably due in part to their volatility which 
enables them to penetrate into the protoplasm of the cells and lessen 
its vitality. They are also closely related to the benzene or benzol 
series, all of which are antiseptics and protoplasmic poisons. They 
differ greatly in their germicidal properties and are more toxic to the 
molds than to bacteria. 

282 



ACTION OF VOLATILE OILS 283 

When applied to the skin they produce irritation, itching and 
redness followed by numbness or anesthesia, the irritant effect being 
increased by their volatility. The oils of cloves and cinnamon are 
used in dentistry to relieve pain and act as antiseptics. The redness 
may be due to the penetration of the oil to the cutaneous arterioles or 
veins, or to reflex action from the irritated terminations of the 
sensory nerves acting on the vasomotor center. 

Digestive System. Volatile oils, in strong solution, are irri- 
tant in the mouth. They have a hot burning taste, and if kept in 
the mouth, cause redness and irritation of the mucous membranes, 
although a few of them (peppermint) first have a cooling sensa- 
tion. The sense of smell is at the same time affected by these oils, 
which are nearly all characterized by distinctive odors. The irrita- 
tion brings about a reflex secretion of saliva which may be very 
profuse. 

In the stomach they exert the same effect as in the mouth 
or upon the skin, that is, a mild form of irritation, leading to in- 
creased vascularity, more rapid absorption, augmented ^ movement ; 
at the same time 'they exert their powerful antiseptic action. These 
actions cause a sense of warmth to the stomach and are often fol- 
lowed by the expulsion of gas and the relief of colic. They are 
therefore called carminatives. Similar effects are believed to be 
produced in the intestines because the administration of these oils is 
often followed by lessened flatulence and distention, and relief in 
many cases of colic. 

Blood. The volatile oils when administered by the mouth pro- 
duce a leucocytosis especially of the polynuclear variety, but this 
is observed in congestion of the stomach and intestines from other 
causes, and does not follow the intravenous or subcutaneous injec- 
tion of the volatile oils, so that it cannot be considered as a specific 

action. 

Central Nervous System. The volatile oils do not affect the 
central nervous system except in very large non-medicinal doses. 
The action is one of stimulation, followed by depression, and is espe- 
cially marked upon the brain. The effect is thought to be due to 
the benzene nucleus of the terpenes and varies greatly with the dif- 
ferent oils. Generally the stimulation is not a very marked feature; 
in the case of turpentine it is very transitory and the narcotic ac- 
tion is more pronounced. 

Absorption. They are rapidly absorbed. 

Excretion. The volatile oils are excreted by the kidneys, lungs 
and skin. During their excretion by the lungs their odor may be 
readily recognized in the breath and they exert a mild irritation 
leading to stimulation of the ciliated epithelium and to reflex cough- 
ing and are therefore used as expectorants. At one time it was 
hoped that they would exert a sufficiently strong antiseptic action 



284 



VOLATILE OILS 



in the lungs to arrest the growth of organisms, but this ideal has not 
been realized. 

The slight amount excreted by the skin acts as a mild irritant 
producing slight diaphoresis. From the kidneys they are excreted 
either combined with glycuronic acid or uncombined. They cause 
here, as elsewhere, a mild antiseptic and irritant action, the latter 
producing a diuresis. This antiseptic and diuretic action is par- 
ticularly marked with the oils of cubebs, turpentine and copaiba 
but may be observed after almost any of them. 

Many volatile oils give a peculiar odor to the urine; turpentine 
and eucalyptus, a peculiar violet-like odor which may be due to 
some small percentage of an oxidation product as most of the oil is 
excreted unchanged. 

Different oils are used for different purposes in therapeutics, al- 
though they all resemble each other in certain respects, and it is 
therefore convenient to divide them into several therapeutic groups. 

1. Volatile Oils Used for Flavors and Carminatives. 

Although many volatile oils are used for flavors in human medi- 
cine, the choice is largely left to the physician and one will use one 
oil and another one, another oil. In veterinary medicine they are 
of little use as flavors because animals as a rule do not care for 
them. This group of the oils if used at all internally are usually 
administered for their carminative action. The principal members 
are: 



Oleum Amygdalae Amarse 


Oil of bitter almonds 


Oleum Anisi 


Oil of anise 


Oleum Aurantii Corticis 


Oil of orange peel 


Oleum Betulse Volatile 


Oil of sweet birch 


Oleum Carui 


Oil of caraway 


Oleum Caryophylli 


Oil of cloves 


Oleum Cinnamomi 


Oil of cinnamon 


Oleum Coriandri 


Oil of coriander 


Oleum Eucalyptoli 


Oil of eucalyptus 


Oleum Fceniculi 


Oil of fennel 


Oleum Gaultheria? 


Oil of wintergreen 


Oleum Lavandula? riorum 


Oil of lavender 


Oleum Limonis Corticis 


Oil of lemon 


Oleum Mentha? Piperita? 


Oil of peppermint 


Oleum Mentha? Viridis 


Oil of spearmint 


Oleum Myristicse 


Oil of nutmegs 


Oleum Pimenta? 


Oil of allspice 


Oleum Rosa? 


Oil of rose 


Oleum Rosmarini 


Oil of rosemary 


Oleum Sassafras 


Oil of sassafras 


Oleum Thymi 


Oil of thyme 


Oleoresin Zingiberis 


Oleoresin of ginger 



2. Malodorous Volatile Oils. 

Some of the volatile oils differ from the others in possessing an 



CLASSIFICATION OF VOLATILE OILS 285 

odor which is disagreeable and nauseating to most people, the best 
known of which are asafcetida and valerian. The oil of valerian 
is prepared from Valeriana officialis. It does not possess a marked 
odor when freshly prepared but after some time when exposed to the 
air it assumes an unpleasant penetrating odor. It is interesting to 
note that while these oils are very disagreeable to most people, 
asafoetida is used in India as a condiment and valerian was form- 
erly used in England as a perfume. 

These two drugs are used in hysteric conditions in human prac- 
tice and their benefits have been assumed as due to the mental im- 
pression produced by their unpleasant odor and taste. Asafcetida 
is also used as a carminative. 

3. Genito-Urinary Stimulants and Disinfectants. 

Most important of these are: 

Copaiba — Cubebs — Sandalwood — Matigo. 

4. For Diuretics. See group of Diuretics! 

Juniper TJva Ursa Zea 

Buchu Bearberry Chimaphila 

5. Skin Irritants. See irritants and counterirritants. 

a. Turpentine group. 

Turpentine Tar 

Succini Cajuput 

Lavender Resin 

Rosemary Sabina 

b. Mustard oil group. 

Sinipis Alba Sinipis Nigra. 

c. Cantharidin group. 

Cantharides Pulsatilla 

Euphorbium Chrysarobinum 

Epicarin 

6. Used Mainly in Respiratory Diseases. 

The volatile oils act as stimulants and antiseptics to the respira- 
tory mucous membranes. They may be applied locally as sprays, 
inhalations, etc., or given internally as expectorants in chronic 
bronchitis, exerting their action in the course of their elimination 
through the lungs. 

The most important members of the group are: 

Turpentine Terebene 

Terpin hydrate Pine bark 

Tolu Eucalyptol 

Grindelia Cubebs 



286 VOLATILE OILS 

7. Toxic and Ecbolic Volatile Oils. 

All volatile oils are toxic in large doses. Although it is im- 
possible to exclude systemic effects altogether, the toxic action is 
due almost entirely to local irritation. The symptoms are gastro- 
enteritis with nephritis as a common sequel. The inflammation of 
the gastrointestinal tract may spread to the pelvic organs and thereby 
produce abortion. 

Most important are : 

Sabine Hedeoma 

Tansy Apiol 

Eue 

8. Volatile Oils Used in Dentistry. There are certain 
volatile oils used in human dentistry which it seems best to include 
in this group. They are employed for the twofold purpose of dis- 
infecting the cavity and destroying the nerves of carious teeth. 
Most important are: 

Cloves Sassafras 

Cinnamon Wintergreen 

(Creosote) 

9. Volatile Oils Used as Insecticides. Certain volatile oils 
or drugs containing them are used to kill or repel certain insects, 
such as mosquitoes, flies, etc. 

Most important are : Insect powder, Persian insect powder (the 
powdered flowers of the pyrethym species), and Dalmatian powder 
(the powdered flowers of Chrysanthemum cinerarisefolium), eu- 
calyptus, menthol, cedar, lavender, hellebore, anise. 



CHAPTEK XIII 
DRUGS ACTING UPON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 

Respiratory Stimulants are agents which quicken or deepen 
the respirations through stimulation of the respiratory center. This 
stimulation may be produced by : 

1. Reflex stimulation of the peripheral nerves. (Vapor of am- 
monia stimulates the nasal branch of the fifth nerve when inhaled 
and reflexly stimulates the peripheral nerves.) Cold douches act 
in a similar manner. Artificial respiration besides bringing air in 
contact with the blood in the lungs also serves this purpose. 

2. Direct stimulation of the center through an increase of tem- 
perature or venosity of the blood. (External heat, venous blood). 

3. Direct through drug's. 

Ammonia Cocaine 

Strychnine Atropine 

Caffeine 

Indications. These drugs are of service as respiratory stimu- 
lants particularly in pulmonary diseases associated with dyspnoea, 
as pneumonia, severe bronchitis, emphysema, lowered activity of 
the respiratory center, exhausting diseases, fatigue and in depres- 
sion by narcotics. 

Ammonia. Ammonia is very serviceable as a quickly acting 
cardiac and respiratory stimulant in syncope, collapse and other 
sudden heart failures. It is usually given by inhalation but may 
be administered intravenously in the proportion of one part of 
stronger ammonia water to four parts of water. 

Strychnine. This drug has a rapid and powerful action with 
but little danger of undesired effects, but its period of action is rela- 
tively short. It is particularly useful in pneumonia and other de- 
bilitating diseases, to tide over a period of depression. Some au- 
thorities do not recommend it for continuous use, while others ad- 
vise it throughout the course of serious diseases. 

Caffeine. This drug acts more slowly than strychnine but with 
a more persistent action. General indications for caffeine are given 
in another place. 

Atropine. The action of this drug is not marked although it 
paralyzes the bronchial muscles, dries up secretions of the bronchi, 
and is of particular benefit in asthmatic conditions. Atropine is 
also of considerable service in the second stage of acute diseases of 

287 



288 DRUGS ACTING UPON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 

the respiratory tract as in pneumonia, where it may be combined 
with strychnine, and serve as a valuable stimulant to respiration, and 
at the same time prevent effusion and vasomotor and cardiac depres- 
sion. Atropine is also a valuable vasomotor, cardiac, and respira- 
tory stimulant in cases of poisoning by depressant drugs (ether, 
chloroform, aconite, eserine, arecoline, pilocarpine). 

Respiratory Depressants. These are agents that depress the 
respiratory center. The most important drugs of this group are: 

Opium Bromides 

Chloral Hyoscine 

There are many other drugs that depress the center and produce 
asphyxia in toxic doses but they are never used in medicine for 
that purpose. The chief indications for these agents as pulmonary 
depressants are in diseases of the respiratory tract to allay cough. 
Most of them have been discussed in other places. 

EXPECTORANTS 

Expectorants are agents that increase, decrease or modify the 
secretions of the air passages. The exact manner of their action 
is unknown although most of them probably act reflexly from an 
irritant (nauseant) action in the stomach. This has been demon- 
strated to be the case with ammonium compounds, antimony, ipecac 
and senega. They may be divided into those that increase and 
liquefy the secretions, as in dry cough, and those which diminish 
secretions. They may also be divided as follows: 

1. Increasing Secretions. 

A. Depressant 

Nauseant or Ipecacuanha 

Sedative Apomorphine 

Tartar Emetic 

Senega 

Lobelia 

B. Indifferent Neutral salts (iodides) 

Carbonates 
Pilocarpine 

C. Stimulant Ammonium salts (carbonate and chloride) 

Digitalis 
Squill 

2. Decreasing Secretions. 

Atropine Aromatic products 

Acids Benzoic acid 

Turpentine Benzoates 

Terpine hydrate Balsams 

Essential oils Tar 

(Sollmann) 



THEORY OF TREATMENT OF COUGH 289 

Many authors simply make two divisions of expectorants, class- 
ing all except the sedative expectorants as stimulant, and following 
with the statement that the sedative expectorants increase secretions 
and the stimulant expectorants check the secretions. The terms 
sedative and stimulant as applied to expectorants do not have any 
reference to their effect upon the secretions but to their action upon 
the organism as a whole. 

The depressant expectorants (sedatives) promote the secretions, 
render them less viscid, and consequently more easily removed. In 
addition to this many of them are soothing to the irritated mucous 
membrane. Most of them will be recognized as emetics, and prob- 
ably they owe much of their power of increasing secretions to their 
nauseating properties. They are used in much smaller doses as 
expectorants than as emetics. In man and those animals which 
vomit an active emetic will often aid the expulsion of tenaceous 
mucus (croup in children). Sedative expectorants are indicated 
in acute bronchitis or in the early stages of other diseases in which 
there is a hard dry cough, considerable irritation and little or no 
discharge. In these conditions as in all other active inflammations 
there is considerable swelling and irritation. The sedative expec- 
torants lower arterial pressure, lessen the blood supply and increase 
the secretions which have been partly or entirely suspended. 

Those classed as stimulant expectorants are largely eliminated 
through the bronchial mucous membrane and are thought to stimulate 
the mucosa, increase blood pressure and increase secretions. They 
are believed to produce this action either by stimulation of the 
relaxed mucosa or by exerting an antiseptic action upon the secre- 
tions. They are indicated in relaxed conditions of the mucosa, as 
in the second stage of acute diseases of the respiratory system or 
in chronic bronchitis. The alkalies are especially useful to lessen 
the viscidity of the mucus, render it more fluid and more easily 
expelled. Stimulating expectorants are not indicated in acute condi- 
tions because to stimulate an already inflamed mucous membrane 
would do more harm than good. 

With the exception of atropine and acids, those classified as 
diminishing secretion belong to the group of antiseptics and volatile 
oils and depend upon their elimination through the bronchial mucous 
membrane for action. Theoretically, at least, they are indicated in 
cases of purulent discharge from the respiratory tract but whether 
they act as expectorants or are eliminated in the secretions in suffi- 
cient amounts to stimulate the mucous membrane or act as antiseptics 
has not been proven. Clinically they appear of considerable impor- 
tance. 

Theory of the Treatment of Cough. Cough may be de- 
fined as a reflex act involving the respiratory center, resulting in a 
violent and forceful expulsion of air from the lungs. It consists of 



290 DRUGS ACTING UPON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 

a deep inspiration followed by a forceful expiration with closed 
glottis. The glottis opens and the air is expelled through the mouth. 
It has a physiological function in the removal of irritant material 
from the respiratory passages. It is evident that if these irritants 
can be removed by coughing, no attempt should be made to check it. 
On the other hand if these irritants cannot be removed in this man- 
ner, or if the cough is excessive or persists long after its cause has 
ceased to be active, it may do more harm than good. In either of 
these cases some treatment is necessary. 

It is necessary to remember that cough is only a symptom, and 
if treated as such, no permanent benefit can result unless it is di- 
rected against the cause, if this is still active. The source of irri- 
tation in the respiratory passages may be free in the lumen of the 
bronchial tubes, may be in the mucous membrane of the larynx 
or deeper channels of respiration, or in the lungs. 

Since cough is a reflex act it may be treated centrally or peripher- 
ally. For the central treatment any drug may be used that de- 
presses the respiratory center. Some of the preparations of opium 
are the most useful and are preferred in the following order: 
heroine, codeine, morphine and the crude drug. Chloroform and the 
bromides are useful but are not so good as the others. 

The peripheral treatment is directed at the inflammation and 
the attendant phenomena and must be modified according to the 
seat of the inflammation. If accessible to local applications or 
above the larynx, antiseptics may be applied as a douche or electuary. 
If below the larynx inhalations of volatile antiseptics are indicated 
(creolin, creosote, turpentine). These are applied in a manner 
commonly called steaming. These agents are frequently given orally 
to produce their effect when excreted by the bronchi and lungs, but 
are of doubtful value. 

The irritation may be diminished by demulcents or anodynes. 
Although these agents cannot be applied below the larynx, there 
seems to be some favorable action in more distant irritation. These 
demulcents (gummy agents) appear to act mechanically by protect- 
ing the mucosa from air and bacteria, which are usually the cause of 
the irritation, although some stimulate the secretion of saliva and 
tend in this manner to keep the parts moist (acacia, sugar, licorice). 

Local anodynes depress the sensory endings of the nerves in the 
respiratory passages but are of no greater service in the relief of 
cough than the central depressants and are applied with much more 
difficulty. Cocaine, atropine or hydrocyanic acid may be used. Hy- 
drocyanic acid is most frequently employed in the form of the offi- 
cial syrup of wild cherry. 

Next to the treatment of the cough comes the treatment for 
changing the character of the secretions. The agents used for this 
purpose are the expectorants which have been discussed previously. 



TREATMENT OF COUGH 291 

While it is the general opinion that sedative expectorants should 
be used in acute bronchitis and stimulant in the chronic or subacute, 
a combination of the two often works well and it appears that they 
are frequently prescribed empirically. 

Conclusion. 

1. The cause of the cough should be treated if known. 

2. Antiseptics and astringents are always indicated. 

3. The local anodynes have no advantage over the central de- 
pressants. 

4. The choice of expectorants must be decided in each case. No 
routine mixture can give good results in all cases. 



CHAPTER XIV 
DIURETICS 

Synonyms. Hydragogues, litholytics, lithothryptics 

Diuretics are agents that increase the flow of urine. Diuresis 
is a copious flow of urine. They may produce this action: 1. By 
increasing the general arterial pressure; 2. By dilating the vessels 
of the kidney; 3. By increasing the water content of the blood (salt 
action); 4. Directly stimulating the renal epithelium; 5. Me- 
chanically. 

(1) General circulatory stimulants. The representative diuret- 
ics of this class are: 

Digitalis Convallaria 

Strophanthus Apocynum 

Squill 

A portion of the diuretic action of squill is due to its action on 
the renal epithelium. 

(2) Dilators of the renal vessels. Local dilatation of the vessels 
of the kidneys, if not accompanied by a reduction of blood pressure, 
increases the secretion of urine (vasodilators). 

(3) Salines. Salts that are readily absorbed from the diges- 
tive tract cause diuresis in the following manner : When diffusible 
substances find their way into the blood, whether directly by injection 
or absorption from the digestive tract, the flow of urine is increased. 
Bodies such as sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, potassium acetate, 
urea, and sugar produce this effect in a typical manner. The pri- 
mary action of salts, no matter in what concentration or how in- 
troduced, is to increase the liquid part of the blood. Isotonic and 
hypotonic solutions pass directly into the blood but hypertonic first 
draw liquid from the tissues and assume an isotonic condition, so 
that the effect becomes the same as if an isotonic solution had been 
directly injected into the blood. This causes an increased amount 
of fluid in the blood and a condition of hydremic plethora results. 

In hydremic plethora the blood becomes less viscid and arterial 
pressure slightly raised. These factors, together with the swollen 
volume of blood, tend to produce a rapid blood flow and as a conse- 
quence to form transudation of the excess of fluid through the 
capillaries. The kidney capillaries are the ones by which the body 
rids itself of excessive fluid. Therefore if they are functioning 

292 



USES OF DIURETICS 293 

properly there is diuresis, and the excess of water with certain dis- 
solved materials is cast off. 

Hydremic plethora and its resultant diuresis may result from 
the absorption of dropsical fluid, under the administration of digitalis. 
It may also be produced intentionally by the ingestion of water or 
of solutions of dialyzable substances, so that these are diuretic. 

(4) Direct renal stimulants. Chief of this group are: 

Caffeine Calomel 

Theobromine Blue mass 

Theophylline Scoparius. 

Buchu, uva ursi, turpentine, copaiba, and cubeb also exert a 
specific action on the renal epithelium, but are mostly used to 
stimulate the mucosa of the genito-urinary tract and as urinary am 
tiseptics, very rarely as diuretics. They will be considered under 
the head of stimulants to the genito-urinary tract. 

(5) Mechanical. These act by flushing out the renal tubules. 
They include water, milk and organic acids. Their results are pro- 
duced very much as that of the salines. They increase the amount 
of fluid in the blood (plethoric hydremia), which raises blood pres- 
sure, increases the rate of the blood flow and capillary transudation 
especially in the kidneys. 

There is but little positive knowledge concerning the influence 
of drugs upon the solids eliminated by the kidneys. The amount of 
solids may be increased by consuming large amounts of water. This 
has been shown as due to a flushing out of the waste products and 
not to any increase in proteid metabolism. It is commonly believed 
that the alkaline diuretics hasten oxidation in the tissues and con- 
sequently nitrogenous elimination but such an action has not been 
demonstrated. The investigations concerning this action have not 
been very convincing. 

Digitalis, Strophanthus and Caffeine have no pronounced effect 
upon the solids normally found in the urine, but caffeine occasionally 
produces slight glycosuria. On the other hand, certain drugs which 
have no activity as diuretics notably increase the amount of the solids 
in the urine. For instance, salicylic acid increases the elimination 
of urea, uric acid, and sulphur compounds. Colchicum probably in- 
creases the amount of uric acid, and thyroid extract increases to a 
great extent the elimination of nitrogen and the phosphates by in- 
creasing the destruction of proteids in the tissues. 

Uses of Diuretics. 

(1) To remove excrementitious matter from the blood. They 
are useful for this purpose when the secretory functions of the kid- 
neys are impaired or suspended, as often in acute febrile diseases, 



294 DIURETICS 

in passive congestion of the kidneys, and in some forms of Bright's 
disease. 

(2) To promote absorption and remove liquid from the body in 
various forms of dropsy. They are of less advantage in dropsical 
conditions due to organic diseases of the kidneys than in dropsy due 
to lowered arterial tension. If dropsy is of renal origin diuretics 
are not indicated and diaphoretics should be substituted. 

(3) To dilute the urine and lessen irritation of the genito-urinary 
tract. For this purpose the alkaline diuretics are useful when the 
urine is too concentrated or excessively acid. They also relieve the 
distressing symptoms occasioned by uric acid gravel and uric acid 
stones, not by exerting any solvent action but by producing a more 
copious secretion of urine. 

(4) To relieve the heart in cardiac disease. This is brought 
about by increased elimination of water from the blood and conse- 
quently the work of the heart is lessened on account of the lessened 
volume of blood. 

(5) To remove poisonous drugs which are normally somewhat 
eliminated by the kidneys. This is especially so of the mercuric 
salts, and some of the vegetable poisons like strychnine. An active 
diuresis will aid in the elimination of these poisons and should not 
be neglected. 

Digitalis. This drug and its allies have very little if any effect 
upon the renal epithelium. They produce their diuretic action 
mainly through their stimulating action upon the heart and blood 
vessels. Digitalis is particularly of use as a diuretic in different 
forms of cardiac disease. As the results of its use in serous effu- 
sions of an inflammatory nature are in doubt, it is but sparingly 
indicated as a diuretic in Veterinary Medicine. Convallaria and 
squill are indicated in about the same class of diseases as digitalis, 
though possessing more diuretic properties. (See Digitalis and 
Squill). 

Diuretic — Horse. 

R Potassii Acetatis 3 ijss 

Tincturse Digitalis 3 x 

Spiritus iEtheris Nitrosi 3 v 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 xvj 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Give four ounces every four hours. 

Caffeine Group. These are the only drugs of any therapeutic 
importance which cause diuresis through a nonirritant stimulation 
of the renal cells. Just how these drugs act is not clear. It is 
generally agreed that they act on the tubules, stimulating them to 
increased action, but there is another theory, according to which 
caffeine inhibits the power of the tubules for resorbing water, with a 
consequent increase in the amount eliminated. Whichever theory 



VEGETABLE SALTS OF POTASSIUM 295 

is correct, the important fact for the practitioner is that they do not 
irritate the kidneys and may therefore be used in nephritis. The 
theory that these drugs produce a specific dilatation of the vessels of 
the kidneys is not well taken because it is known that the vessels of 
every organ dilate when it begins to function actively, and it is 
impossible to say whether the renal vessels dilate as a cause or effect 
of the activity. See Caffeine group, p. 126. 

* SCOPARIUS 

Synonym. Broom 

Parts Used. The tops of Cytisus Scoparius, a shrub native to 
Western Asia and Southern Europe and cultivated in other places. 
It contains two active principles, sparteine, a liquid alkaloid, and sco- 
parin, a neutral principle. Sparteine is the alkaloid most used and 
is prescribed as the sulphate. 

The action is principally upon the heart and kidneys. The 
crude drug in moderate doses simply serves as a diuretic. Its 
action upon the heart has been held by some to be similar to digi- 
talis, but this is not so because sparteine slows and weakens the heart 
instead of strengthening it. The neutral principle, scoparin, is 
responsible for its diuretic action. 

Large doses of scoparius cause vomiting and purging. 

Uses. Scoparius alone or with digitalis is occasionally used in 
cardiac dropsy. 

SALINE DIURETICS 

The principal members of the saline diuretics are certain salts of 
potassium, and lithium. 

The diuretic potassium salts may be further divided into the 
vegetable and mineral preparations. 

VEGETABLE SALTS OF POTASSIUM 

The vegetable salts of potassium are the acetate, citrate and 
bitartrate. They are incompatible with acids, metallic and alka- 
loidal salts. 

Action. Except in very large doses these salts show no appre- 
ciable effect upon the organism except an increase in the secretion 
of urine. The diuresis is due in large part to the salt action of 
the drugs and in part to direct action upon the secretory cells of the 
kidneys. They increase the mineral salts of the urine, the sodium 
as well as the potassium, and in large doses impart an alkaline re- 
action to the urine. 

Uses. 1. Acute rheumatism. Acute rheumatism is often bene- 
fited by the administration of these preparations, although the 
action in this case is not well understood. For this purpose they 

* Unofficial. 



296 DIURETICS 

should be given in large doses every three or four hours until the 
urine becomes alkaline. They are frequently combined with or 
given in conjunction with the salicylates for this purpose. 

2. Dysuria. They are frequently serviceable in dysuria due to 
excessive acidity of the urine. 

3. Lessen pain due to calculi on account of their diluent action 
on the urine. 

4. Sedative expectorants. For this purpose they serve a useful 
role in the early stages of acute bronchitis, when the secretions are 
thick and scanty. 

POTASSII ACETAS — POTASSIUM ACETATE 

This occurs as a white odorless powder or crystalline masses, 
with a saline taste. It is soluble in 0.4 parts of water and 2 parts 
of alcohol. The acetate is a very unstable preparation, as it is very 
deliquescent, on account of which it should not be prescribed in 
powders and cannot be kept long after the container has been opened. 
On this account, it is a good plan to make a definite strength solution 
upon opening a bottle to use when dispensing. 

Doses. H. 3ij — iv; 8. — 16. D. grs. x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. 

Action and Uses. This is a pleasant and nonirritating diu- 
retic and is entirely used as such. 

POTASSII CITRAS — POTASSIUM CITRATE 

This occurs as a white granular powder or transparent prismatic 
crystals, is deliquescent on exposure to the air, odorless, of a pleasant 
acidulous taste, soluble in 0.5 part of water, sparingly soluble in 
alcohol. 

Doses. Same as the acetate. 

Preparations. 

Liquoris Potassii Citratis. D. §ss — j ; 15. — 30. 
Potassii Citras Effervescens. Twice those of the acetate. 

Action and Uses. The action and uses of this preparation 
are similar to the acetate and indeed interchangeable with it. The 
solution is used in mild febrile diseases to promote the secretions 
from the kidneys and skin. 

POTASSII BITARTRAS 

Synonym. Cream of Tartar 

Occurs as colorless or opaque rhombic crystals or white powder, 
odorless, of an acid taste, soluble in 200 parts of water, slightly 
soluble in alcohol. 



POTASSII NITRAS — POTASSIUM NITRATE 297 

Doses. Diuretic dose, same as the acetate. Laxative dose 
for dog, 5j — iv ; 4 — 15. 

Action and Uses. This drug differs somewhat in action from 
the other members of this group, as it is not rapidly absorbed and 
consequently serves as a mild laxative as well as diuretic. It is one 
of the ingredients of Rochelle salts. It is used as a mild laxative for 
small animals and as a mild diuretic for the larger ones. 

OTHER DIURETIC SALTS OF POTASSIUM 
POTASSIUM NITRAS 

Synonyms. Salt Peter, Niter 

Potassium nitrate occurs as colorless, transparent, rhombic 
crystals, or crystalline powder, odorless, of a cooling saline taste, 
permanent in air, soluble in 3.6 parts of water, slightly soluble in 
alcohol. 

Doses. H. 5 ij — iv; 8. — 15. D. grs. v — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 
Repeated twice daily. 

Action. It resembles the previous salts except that it is more 
irritating. As in the case of the vegetable salts of potassium, it 
increases the urine by its salt action and direct action upon the cells 
of the kidneys. In large doses, potassium nitrate is not only more 
irritating than the vegetable salts, but is also more liable to depress 
the heart and nervous system on account of a relatively greater 
action of the potassium ion over that of the nitrate ion. It is partly 
eliminated by the kidneys and saliva unchanged, but a part is believed 
to undergo a change in the tissues. In toxic doses death is due to 
gastroenteritis. It is believed by some to possess some alterative 
properties and is consequently a favorite ingredient of condition or 
alterative powders. 

Externally it is refrigerant. 

Uses. 1. Alterative and febrifuge. In catarrhal affections 
and febrile conditions where it is thought to be of benefit by increas- 
ing bronchial, cutaneous, and urinary secretions, thus assisting the 
elimination of waste material. For this purpose it is often com- 
bined with small doses of epsom salts and given in the drinking 
water. 

2. Diuretic. Here it is probably the most used drug in veter- 
inary practice (in edema of the limbs, lymphangitis, etc.) but 
should be contraindicated in renal diseases. It possesses no advan- 
tage except that of permanency in air, and cheapness, over the less 
irritating vegetable salts. 

3. Externally and locally. It serves as a refrigerant in solution 
in combination with ammonium chloride but has no advantage over 
ice. 



298 DIURETICS 

Salts of Lithium. The action of lithium salts is quite similar 
to the corresponding salts of potassium and, like those of potassium, 
they increase the secretion of the kidneys and diminish its acidity. 
They were formerly recommended for gouty conditions and as sol- 
vents for uric acid gravel. This use was based on the fact that 
lithium unites with uric acid and makes a more soluble compound, 
but the conditions found within the body are so different from those 
of the chemical laboratory that this action is impossible. Since the 
alkalies are not excreted as carbonates or in the same form as given, 
the above results are impossible. There is no reason to believe that 
they possess any advantage over the corresponding salts of potash or 
soda, which they resemble closely in action. Lithium carbonate 
and citrate are official. They occur as white odorless powders, solu- 
ble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol. 

Average dose for dogs, grs. viij ; 0.5. 

Calomel and Blue Mass. The action of these preparations as 
diuretics is probably due to their irritating action upon the renal 
epithelium, as in case of all absorbable metals. These are the only 
metallic preparations used for diuretic action. They are especially 
useful in cases of cardiac dropsy but are of doubtful value in renal 
or hepatic dropsies or in cases of serous effusions. 

SpiritUS iEtheris Nitrosi (Sweet spirits of nitre), Nitre. See 
Diaphoretics for details of action. This is a pleasant remedy but 
of feeble diuretic properties. The diuresis probably depends upon 
dilatation of the blood vessels of the kidneys. Spirits of nitrous ether 
is also a diaphoretic. Whether it serves as a diuretic or diaphoretic 
depends upon the conditions under which the animals are kept. If 
they are kept well covered and warm, it serves as a diaphoretic, 
otherwise as a diure"tic. As a diuretic it seems that it would be of 
use in those conditions due to increased arterial tension of the kid- 
neys, that is, oliguria due to febrile diseases or active congestion of 
the kidneys. It is more important for its carminative and dia- 
phoretic actions. 



CHAPTER XV 
GENITOURINARY STIMULANTS AND DISINFECTANTS 

Those drugs which stimulate the entire genito-urinary tract will 
T>e included in this group. They are all eliminated by the kidneys 
and irritate the cells of the kidneys and more or less increase the 
amount of urine, but this action is not so important as their stimu- 
lant action upon the mucosa of this tract. Many of these agents 
also possess decided antiseptic properties which are eliminated by 
the kidneys in sufficient concentration to inhibit the growth of bac- 
teria and prevent the decomposition of urine. Most of these agents 
are volatile oils or contain a volatile oil to which their action is due. 
See Volatile Oils, p. 282. In large doses they may cause acute in- 
flammation of the kidneys, bladder and urethra. 

Most important members of this group are : 

Copaiba Cantharides 

Cubebs Juniper 
Matigo Oils of 

Buchu Sandalwood 

Uva ursa Turpentine 

Urotropin Erigeron 

The combination of the stimulant and antiseptic actions of these 
drugs makes them especially useful in the treatment of subacute or 
chronic pyelitis, cystitis and urethritis. They are contraindicated 
in acute inflammations. 

COPAIBA 

Synonym. Balsam of Copaiba or Copaiva 

Description. This is an oleoresin derived from one or more 
South American species of Copaiba. It occurs as a pale yellow to 
brownish-yellow, more or less transparent, viscid liquid, having a 
peculiar aromatic odor and a persistent, bitter, and acrid taste. In- 
soluble in water; soluble or showing only a slight opalescence in 
alcohol, and fixed and volatile oils ; completely soluble in chloroform 
and ether. 

It contains a volatile oil, a resin and copaivic acid. It is not a 

true balsam because it does not contain cinnamic or benzoic acid, but 

is purely and simply an oleoresin. 

^yy 



300 GENITOURINARY STIMULANTS 

Doses. 

Copaiba. Horses. 3ijss — vj ; 10. — 25. Cattle. 3vj — gijss; 
25. — 50. Sheep and Goats, 3j — ij ; 4. — 8. Dogs, gr. 
vij — 5ss; 0.5 — 2. Cats, grs. iij — xv; 0.25 — 1. 

Oleum Copaiba is a volatile oil distilled from copaiba. 

Doses. One-half those of copaiba. 

Action. In small doses it is a stimnlant to the mucous mem- 
branes generally. Since it is eliminated by the mucosa of the 
bronchi and kidneys it serves as a diuretic and expectorant. It is 
also an antiseptic and renders the urine and bronchial secretions 
antiseptic. Large doses are irritant, causing abdominal pain, gastro- 
enteritis, nephritis, and frequent micturation. 

Uses. 1. In chronic discharges from the genito-urinary tract, 
pyelitis, cystitis, urethritis, but it should not be given until the most 
acute symptoms have subsided. 

2. In subacute or chronic bronchitis with excessive purulent dis- 
charge it often produces good results, but is generally inferior to 
guaiacol or some of its preparations for this purpose. 

Administration. All preparations of copaiba are very dis- 
agreeable and should therefore be administered in capsule or an 
emulsion. 

CUBEBA 

Synonyms. Cubeb, Cubebs, Cubebo 

Cubeb is the dried unripe but fully grown fruit of Piper 
Cubeba, a perennial climbing vine of Borneo and vicinity, It con- 
tains a volatile oil, a resin and cubebic acid. 

Doses and Preparations. 

Powdered drug. H. 3v — §ij ; 20. — 50. gm. D. gr. xv — lxxv; 

1. — 5. gm. 
Oleum Cubebce. H. and D. one-half of the above. 

Action and Uses. With the exception of being less irritant 
than copaiba, cubebs closely resemble that drug in action and uses. 
These drugs are frequently prescribed in combination and often give 
better results than when either is used alone. As in case of copaiba, 
cubebs should be administered in capsules or an emulsion. 

OLEUM — SANTALI 

Synonyms. Oil of Santal or Sandalwood 

This is a volatile oil distilled from the wood of Santalum album, 
a tree which grows in Southern India. It is used almost entirely 
for small animals, the dose being for dogs, TTL v — xx. 



MATICO — TURPENTINE 301 

The action and uses are similar to those of the previous two 
drugs. 

* MATICO 

Matico is the leaves of Piper Angustifolium, a shrub of Mexico 
and South America. It contains a volatile oil, resin, tannic acid 
and artanthic acid. 

Official Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Matico. D. tit xxx — lx; 2. — 4. 

Tinctura Matico. D. oss — ij ; 2. — 8. 

This drug is very little used in medicine, although it might be 
used in the same conditions as the preceding drugs. Besides this 
action, the leaves seem to favor coagulation and to arrest minor 
hemorrhages, due no doubt to the presence of tannic acid. 

* TEREBINTHINA 

Synonym. Turpentine 
This is a eoncrete oleoresin obtained from Pinus palustris and 
from other species of pinus (pine). It occurs in yellowish opaque 
masses, brittle in the cold ; lighter internally, sticky and more or less 
glossy. Taste and odor of turpentine. It is composed of a volatile 
oil, oleum terebinthinse (oil of turpentine) and a resin (rosin) and 
is decomposed into these when distilled. 

OLEUM TEREBINTHINAE 

Synonyms. Oil of Turpentine, Spirits of Turpentine 
Oleum Terebinthina? occurs as a thin, colorless liquid, having a 

characteristic odor and taste, soluble in 3 parts of alcohol, insoluble 

in water. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Oleum Terebinthinw. Carminative. H. and C. §j — ij ; 

30. — 60. Sh. and Cow. 5j — iv; 4. — 15. D. 1TL x — xxx; 

6.-2. 
Anthelmintic. H. and C. §ij — iv; 60 — 120. D. 3ss — iv; 

2.-5. 
Diuretic. H. and C. §ij — vj ; 8. — 24. 

OLEUM TEREBINTHINAE RECTIFICATUM 

This is prepared by redistilling oil of turpentine over a solution 
of sodium hydroxide, and should be prescribed for most cases of 
internal medication. 

Dose. Same as above. 
Emulsum Olei Terebinthinw, 15 per cent. 
Linimentum Terebinthinw, 350 to 650 of resin cerate. 
* Unofficial. 



302 GENITOURINARY STIMULANTS 

Externally. Turpentine is an irritant to the skin, producing 
all the stages of inflammation, from redness to pustule formation, 
according to strength of the preparation used and method of appli- 
cation. It is extremely irritant to horses and dogs. Horses show 
a considerable amount of pain after its application and the resultant 
sore is a slow healing one. It is also an antiseptic and deodorant 
of considerable value. 

Internally. In moderate doses turpentine produces a sense of 
warmth to the stomach and serves as a carminative and antiseptic. 
It is also a fairly efficient anthelmintic, especially against round 
worms, but is not so active as a ta?nicide. 

It reflexly stimulates the heart and respiration, probably by irri- 
tation of the mucosa of the stomach. It is rapidly absorbed and 
eliminated, escaping from the body largely by way of the urinary 
and respiratory tracts, causing diuresis, stimulating the mucosa of 
the urinary tract and giving a peculiar odor to the urine (violet 
odor). In overdoses or toxic doses turpentine causes abdominal 
pain, nausea, purging in some cases, rapid weak pulse, slowed res- 
pirations, and muscular weakness. There is marked irritation of 
the kidneys and this may be accompanied by strangury, suppression 
of the urine or hematuria. The action is that of volatile oils, for 
which see p. 282. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Counterirritant. (a) It is valuable as a rubifacient in 
various forms of inflammation, such as bronchitis, pleuritis, pneu- 
monia, gastritis and enteritis. In these cases probably the best 
method of application is the turpentine stupe. This is prepared by 
sprinkling freely with the oil a blanket or woolen cloth which has 
been previously wrung out of hot water. This is then applied to 
the chest, or other part of the body, covered with some material to 
hold the heat, and left for half an hour or longer, according to the 
results desired. 

(b) Liniments containing turpentine are useful to relieve in- 
flammation and soreness in muscular rheumatism, sprains, etc. 

2. Carminative. It is very useful to relieve acute gastric tym- 
pany and flatulent colic in the horse and tympanities of the rumen in 
cattle. For this purpose it is usually combined with some prep- 
aration of ammonia and administered with linseed oil or may be 
given in capsule. In these cases it causes the expulsion of the gas 
already formed and prevents fermentation to which the condition is 
due. 

3. Hemostatic. It has been recommended by some as a hemo- 
static for internal hemorrhages, although the method of action is un- 
known. It is inferior to other agents for this action. 

4. Purpura Hemorrhagica. The use of turpentine in this dis- 



TEREBINTHINA — TURPENTINE 303 

ease of the horse is of long standing. Good results often follow its 
use, although its action cannot be explained satisfactorily. It is 
usually combined with tincture of the chloride of iron. 

5. Anthelmintic. Especially for round worms of horses, dogs 
and swine. Also as an intratracheal injection for lung worms of 
calves and lambs. Not very effective against tape worms. It is 
usually given in oil. 

6. Antiseptic expectorant. In cases of subacute or chronic bron- 
chitis with excessive purulent secretion, but it is thought to be in- 
ferior to some form of terebene. It is often used for its local action 
upon the respiratory tract in various respiratory diseases. For this 
purpose it may be added to hot water and the animal allowed or 
compelled to inhale the vapor (steaming). 

7. Stimulant to genito-urinary tract. In same diseases as men- 
tioned under the previous drugs. 

8. Phosphorus poisoning. Turpentine on standing is supposed 
to be ozonized and is therefore useful to oxidize phosphorus. This 
action is very much in doubt in case of the present commercial tur- 
pentine. 

Contraindications. Turpentine should not be administered 
when there is nephritis, congestion of the kidneys or acute inflamma- 
tion of the gastrointestinal tract. 

Administration. It should be administered as an emulsion, in 
oil, mucilage, or in capsule. 

Prescriptions. 

White thick liniment. 

R Pulveris Saponis 5 ij 

Olei Terebinthinae \ sjqv 

Aquae Ammonise Fortioris «j ij 

Ammonii Chloridi 3 iv 

Aquae q. s ad. Cong, j 

Mix the soap and ammonia water and ammonium chloride in one- 
half gallon of water, shake well and add the turpentine and enough 
water to make one gallon. 

Tympany. Horse or cow. 

R Olei Terebinthinse 3 iv-viij 

Spiritus Ammonse Aromatici 3 j 

Olei Lini § xxiv 

M. Ft. Haustus. 

Sig. Give at once. 

Dog. Fetid Bronchitis. 

B Olei Terebinthinae 3 ijss 

Acacias * v 

Aquae Destillatae 5 x 

Misce et fiat emulsum. 

Sig. Teaspoonful three times daily. 



304 GENITOURINARY STIMULANTS 

Worms. Horse. 

fy Olei Terebinthinae 3 ij 

Olei Lini O. j 

M. Give at one dose after feeding on soft food for two days. 

Purpura Hemorrhagica. Horse. 

5 Olei Terebinthinae % j 

Tr. Ferri Chloridi E ss 

Acacise B ss 

Three times daily. 

Colic. Horse. 

$ Olei Terebinthinae B ij 

Spiritus Camphorae 3 ij 

^Etheris 3 jss 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. Give at one dose. Repeat in 2 hours if necessary. 

RESINA 

Synonyms. Resin, Rosin 

This is a hard, transparent amber colored mass. 
Preparations. 

Geratum Resince (resin 35 parts, yellow wax 15 parts, lard 50 

parts). 
*Ceratum Resinw Comp. Resin 22.5 parts, yellow wax 22.5 

parts, suet 30 parts, turpentine 11.5 parts, linseed oil 

13.5 parts. 
Emplastrum Resince. Resin 14 parts, lead plaster 80 parts, 

yellow wax 6 parts. 

Internally resin is a feeble diuretic and astringent. It is anti- 
septic and astringent when applied locally. 

Uses. It is a favorite ingredient of many diuretic balls and 
powders. Externally the two cerates are used as stimulants to indo- 
lent wounds. 

TEREBENUM (TEREBENE) 

This is a liquid consisting of dipentene and other hydrocarbons 
obtained by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on the oil of 
turpentine and subsequent rectification with steam. It should be 
kept in a well-stoppered bottle in a cool place protected from light. 
Terebene is a colorless thin liquid having a rather agreeable thyme- 
like odor, and an aromatic, terebinthinate taste. 

Dose. H. 3ij— vj ; 8.— 24. D. n\, v— xv; .3— 1. 

Action and Uses. This drug resembles the action of oil of tur- 
pentine, but it is more diffusible and less irritating to the kidneys. 



JUNIPERUS — JUNIPER 305 

It may be used in any condition where turpentine would be indi- 
cated, but is to be preferred in chronic respiratory diseases. 
For Chronic Bronchitis. 

ffc Terebeni. 

Eucalyptolis aa. 3 ij 

Syrupi q. s ad. O. j 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. One ounce every two hours for a horse; 15-30 drops for a dog. 

TERPINI HYDRAS — TERPINE HYDRATE 

Terpine hydrate is usually manufactured by treating an alco- 
holic solution of the oil of turpentine with nitric acid. The mix- 
ture is placed in an evaporating dish and allowed to stand three or 
four days, when the crystals of terpine hydrate appear. The liquid 
is drained off, the crystals are then dried between sheets of filter 
paper. They are then reprecipitated to purify them. 

Doses. H. 3ss— j ; 2.0— 4.0. D. gr. v— xx; 0.3— 1.3. 

Action and Uses. The action and uses are similar to those of 
the oil of turpentine. It is used in chronic affections of the respira- 
tory tract. Combined with heroin it is serviceable in irritable 
coughs. 

For Cough. Dog. 

R Heroinse 0.1 gm. gr. jss 

Terpini Hydratis ... 1.0 gm, gr. xvj 

Alcoholis 45. mils § jss 

Syrupi Pruni Vir- 

ginianse q. s...ad. 100. gm. 3 iij 
M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Teaspoonful every 3 hours. 

*Sanitas. This is prepared by the oxidation of the oil of turpen- 
tine. It is said to contain a soluble camphor, camphoric acid, thy- 
mol and hydrogen peroxide. It is used as a disinfectant, deodorant 
and antiseptic. 

* JUNIPERUS — JUNIPER 

Synonyms. Juniper, Juniper Berries, Fructus Juniperis. 
Juniper was official up to revision of 1880 as the fruit of Juniperus 
communis, an evergreen shrub of Northern Europe, Asia, and North 
America. It contains" a volatile oil, a resin and a noncrystalline 
principle, juniperin. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Juniperus. H. §j — ij ; 30 — 60. D. gr. xv — lx ; 1 — 4. 
Oleum Juniperi. This is a volatile oil distilled from the 
above drug. H. and C. 3j — iv; 4. — 8. D. TT\,ij — x; 
0.13—0.6. 
* Unofficial. 



306 GENITOURINARY STIMULANTS 

Spiritus Juniperi. 5 per cent, of oil of Juniper. 

Spiritus Juniperi Compositus. This is a substitute for Hol- 
land Gin. It is a solution of the oils of juniper, caraway 
and fennel in 70 per cent, alcohol. H. and C. ^ij — iv; 
60.— 120. D. oj— iv; 4.— 15. 

Action and Uses. Juniper is quite similar in action to tur- 
pentine. It is a diuretic, expectorant, carminative and stomachic 
and is probably more diuretic than most of the members of this 
group. The berries are added to gin to give its characteristic odor. 

Juniper is not frequently used in veterinary medicine and when 
used is almost always prescribed as a diuretic or stimulating expec- 
torant. For the former purpose it may be used to increase the urine 
in passive congestion of the kidneys, resulting from chronic heart 
disease. In subacute or chronic diseases of the genito-urinary tract 
it is not generally regarded as so serviceable as buchu, copaiba, or 
oil of sandalwood. It is undoubtedly most used as an expectorant in 
chronic respiratory diseases. 

Bronchial Catarrh. Cow. 

R Juniperis 3 viij 

Sodii Sulphatis 3 xvj 

Ammonii Chloridi 5 ij 

Misce et fiat pulvis. 

Sig. One tablespoonful on each feed. 

Catarrh of the Bladder. Dog. 

R Olei Juniperi 3 ijss 

Alcoholis 3 y 

Misce et fiat solutio. 

Sig. 10 drops every three hours. 

* OLEUM ERIGERONTIS. OIL OF ERIGERON 

Synonym. Fleabane 

This is a volatile oil obtained from the fresh flowering herb of 
Erigeron Canadensis, an annual plant of North America. The oil 
is a pale yellow liquid, with persistent aromatic odor and taste. It 
resembles turpentine in action, but is less powerful. It is little used 
in veterinary medicine. It has some reputation as a hemostatic in 
slight, persistent, internal hemorrhages. 

BUCHU 

Parts Used. The leaves of Barosma hetulini, a plant growing in 
Southern Africa. It contains a volatile oil from which Barosma 
camphor is obtained, a glucoside and a bitter. 

* Unofficial. 



UVA URSI — BEARBERRY 307 

Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Buchu. H. ^j — ij ; 30. — 60. D. n\ v — 

xxx ; 0.3 — 2.0. 
Powdered leaves, same as fluidextract. 

Action and Uses. Buchu is a feeble diuretic and stimulant to 
the genitourinary tract. The volatile oil is largely eliminated by the 
kidneys, causing diuresis, and "imparting to the urine a peculiar odor 
and some antiseptic properties. Overdoses produce about the same 
symptoms as overdoses of other volatile oils. 

Buchu is useful in the less severe cases of subacute and chronic 
cystitis and is particularly valuable in chronic irritability of the 
bladder shown by a frequent desire to urinate. It is well to pre- 
scribe it with an alkali. 

Irritable Bladder. Dog. 

B Fluidextracti Buchu 3 v j 

Potassii Citratis 3 iv 

Spiritus iEtheris Nitrosi I j 

Aquae q. s. ad. I vj 

Misee et fiat solutio. 

Sig. Teaspoon or tablespoonful, according to size of animal, every 
three hours. 

UVA URSI 

Synonym. Bearberry 

Parts Used. The leaves of Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, an ever- 
green shrub, native to northern continents. It contains two active 
principles (glucosides ), arbutin and ericolin, besides tannic acid and 
an inert resin (urson). Its action is due largely to its glucoside 
arbutin. 

Dose. 

Fluidextracti Uvce Ursi. H. §ss — ij ; 15. — 60. D. 5ss — iv; 

2.0—8.0. 
Arbutin. H. not used. D. grs. ij — iij; 0.13 — 0.3. 

Uva Ursi has the typical action of other members of the group, 
diuretic, stimulant to genito-urinary tract, and renders the urine 
more or less antiseptic. It is eliminated partly unchanged and 
partly as bydroquinon. Both the crude drug and arbutin render the 
urine dark green, probably on account of the oxidation of the hydro- 
quinon. As it contains tannic acid it is an astringent and for the 
same reason is incompatible with the spirits of nitrous ether. 

Uses. It may be employed in the same conditions for which 
buchu is recommended, but is generally considered inferior to it. 



308 GENITOURINARY STIMULANTS 

* CHIMAPHILA 

Synonym. Pipissena 

Chimaphila is the leaves of Chimaphila umbellata, a perennial 
of Northern America, Europe and Asia. It contains arbutin, eri- 
colin, urson and a neutral principle, chimaphilin. 

Doses. 

Fluidextractum Chimaphila?. D. 5ss — j ; 2.0 — 4.0. 

Since the constituents are so similar to those of buchu the action 
and uses are practically identical with it. 

* PAREIRA 

Synonym. Pareira Brava 

The roots of Chondrodendron tomentosum, a climbing tree grow- 
ing in Brazil and Peru. They contain as an active principle an al- 
kaloid, buxin and tannic acid. The action and uses are similar to 
buchu. 

Cantharis, Cantharides. Since cantharides has a more typi- 
cal and important action it will be studied in detail in another 
group. In moderate doses it is a stimulant to the genito-urinary 
tract, but in large doses is a severe and dangerous irritant. Toxic 
doses or even large ones are irritant to the gastrointestinal tract, as 
well as to the genito-urinary tract. The most important and typical 
results of large doses are : gastro-enteritis, with pain, nausea, vomit- 
ing or purging. Upon the genito-urinary tract it may cause 
nephritis, dysuria, frequent micturation, hematuria and albumin- 
uria. It has been recommended as a stimulant to the genito-urinary 
tract but is rarely used for this purpose, except as an aphrodisiac. 

*ZEA 

Synonym. Cornsilk 

Zea or cornsilk is the stiles and stigmas of Zea mays (Indian 
corn). Its activity is due to a resin and maizenic acid. 

Fluidextractum Zew. D. 5ss — ij ; 2. — 8. 
Decoctum Zece, 5 per cent. D. §j — ij ; 30. — 60. 

Cornsilk really belongs to the group of diuretics. It is a feeble 
diuretic and sedative to the genito-urinary mucous membrane. It 
may be of some use in acute cystitis and various forms of nervous 
irritibility of the bladder, but is of little value in veterinary medi- 
cine. 

* Unofficial. 



SEDATIVES TO GENITOURINARY TRACT 309 



SEDATIVES TO THE GENITO-URINARY TRACT 

There are so few remedies which exert any direct sedative action 
upon the genito-urinary tract that a separate group will not be made. 
Belladonna and hyoscyamus are the most important direct sedatives 
to the tract, and may be used for this action in acute inflammatory con- 
ditions of the bladder or urethra. See Belladonna group for details. 
Besides these drugs, many others serve as indirect sedatives to this 
tract, not by exerting any direct sedative action but by removing the 
cause of the irritation. In this manner, urotropin, boric acid, co- 
paiba, etc., by imparting an antiseptic action to the urine help in 
overcoming infection of the tract and in this way relieve inflamma- 
tion. The alkaline diuretics may relieve severe conditions due to 
acidity of the urine. 



CHAPTER XVI 
DRUGS ACTING UPON THE GENITAL ORGANS 

EmmenagOgues are agents which act upon the nongravid uterus 
and increase or promote the menstrual flow (in women) or which 
favor the occurrence of estrum (heat) in the domestic animals. 

Ecbolics or occytoxics are those agents which stimulate the 
gravid uterus to the expulsion of the fetus. They are also termed 
abortifacients. 

EmmenagOgues may act (1) indirectly by removing the cause of 
the suppression or by improving the general condition of the animal 
or (2) by directly stimulating the uterus. 

The indirect include such drugs as 

Salts of Iron Strychnine 

Arsenic Cod Liver Oil 

Copper Purgatives 

Tonics in General 

The direct emmenagogues include those agents which are irritant 
and toxic, and since they may produce abortion in pregnant animals 
they are also ecbolic and will be discussed under that head. 

Uses. The emmenagogues are not much employed in veter- 
inary medicine as such. The indirect emmenagogues may be occa- 
sionally useful in cases where there is some constitutional weakness, 
such as anemia, obesity, etc. In addition to the general improve- 
ment of nutrition, iron often serves well, especially if the cause is 
anemia. Emmenagogues are rarely needed in veterinary practice 
because failure to come in heat in animals is usually due to some 
lesion in the genital tract, which cannot be overcome by the adminis- 
tration of medicine. 

Ecbolics or Occytoxics. With few exceptions, the greatest im- 
portance of this group of drugs to veterinary medicine, is that they 
tend to cause abortion and should therefore be used cautiously in 
pregnant animals. 

The ecbolics or occytoxics may produce their effect by direct 
action on the muscles of the uterus (ergot group), or indirectly by 
action upon a center supposed to be located in the spinal cord. This 
however is purely theoretical. The chief ecbolics are 

310 



ERGOT A — ERGOT 311 

Ergot 

Corn Smut Cotton Root Bark 

Quinine Hydrastis 



Apiol 


Myrrh 


Senechio 


Tansy 


Pennyroyal 


Savine 



To the above group must be added all other drugs which congest 

abdominal organs : 

1. Irritant and toxic volatile oils. 

Thyme 

Turpentine 

Rue 



2. All other intestinal irritants. Potassium Permanganate, Can- 
tharides, Quinine, Digitalis, Oxalic acid. 

3. Drastic purgatives. 

In regard to the above statements it should be noted that prac- 
tically all of the drugs mentioned, in large doses, produce severe if 
not fatal gastroenteritis. The hyperemia resulting from this in- 
flammation does not remain localized in the intestines but extends to 
the other abdominal organs, which although not directly influenced 
by the drugs, take part in the inflammation. One of the most im- 
portant and first organs to become affected is the uterus. This 
accounts for the use of irritants as ecbolics. Many organic irritants, 
volatile oils, have considerable reputation as ecbolics, but this action 
is only secondary to the inflammation of the digestive tract which in 
many cases may be severe enough to cause death without producing 
abortion. 

General Indications. 1. As oxytoxics during labor to stimu- 
late a tardy expulsion of the fetus when the cause of dystokia is 
simply due to inertia of the uterus. 

2. After parturition to check post partum hemorrhage by causing 
contraction of the uterus and thus diminishing the size of the bleed- 
ing capillaries. They are of but little if any use in veterinary 
medicine for this purpose. 

3. After parturition to contract the uterus and so lessen liability 
of prolapse of the organ. 

ERGOTA — ERGOT 

Synonyms. Ergot of Rye, Secale Cornutum, Spurred Rye 

Ergot is the sclerotium of a parasitic fungus, Claviceps purpurea, 
which replaces the head of the common rye. This sclerotium repre- 
sents a period of development of the fungus which is between the 
mycelium and the spore bearing thallus. It is obtained largely from 
Russia, Germany and Spain. It occurs as hornshaped pieces, about 
/4 to 1 inch long, and % inch thick and has a peculiar oily taste. 



312 DRUGS ACTING UPON THE GENITAL ORGANS 

Although, a vast amount of study of the composition of ergot has 
been made and it has been claimed on many occasions that the active 
principles have been discovered, experience has shown that the sup- 
posed active principle represented at most only a part of the activity 
of the drug. 

It is certain, however, that ergot contains several active prin- 
ciples, some of them present in minute quantities but having ex- 
traordinary activity, and there are at least four constituents which 
should be mentioned. These are ergotoxine and ergotinine, two alka- 
loids which are closely related, and two substances, tyramin and 
histamin, commonly considered as putrefactive principles, because 
they are present in putrefying meat. 

Ergotoxine, an extremely active alkaloid, is the hydrate of 
ergotinine which is inactive but is probably changed into ergotoxine 
under some conditions which are not understood. Ergotinine was 
discovered many years ago but ergotoxine was only recently isolated 
in pure form and represents the active portion of various substances 
which have been isolated in different degrees of purity by different 
investigators and given various names. 

Tyramin resembles epinephrine in its chemical composition and 
physiological actions. It is formed from tyrosin during putrefac- 
tion on account of which it received its name. It probably con- 
stitutes the chief constituent of aqueous preparations of ergot, as 
ergotoxine is insoluble in water. Tyramin causes active contractions 
of the pregnant uterus. 

Histamin causes contraction of the uterus, constriction of some 
vessels and dilatation of others, but is said to be present in ergot in 
amounts too small to influence the uterine contraction of ergot to 
any extent. According to some, however, its action is so vigorous 
that it should not be ignored although it may escape isolation in 
amounts that can be utilized profitably. It may be prepared syn- 
thetically. Ergot also contains saponin which is of no importance 
unless the drug is to be used intravenously. 

It is thought that all the pharmaceutical preparations which have 
decided therapeutic activity contain either ergotoxine, tyramin or 
both. The following table will show the relationship between some 
of the older preparations, and the active principles known to exist 
as given by Barger and Dale : 

Ecbolin and Ergotin (Wenzell) : Mixture of alkaloids contain- 
ing cholin (Meulenhoff). 

Sphacelinic acid {Robert) : Inactive resin with adherent alka- 
loid. 

Cornutin {Kobert) : An alkaloidal resin probably containing 
some ergotoxine, and also some other active substances which may be 
a decomposition product of ergotoxine. 



ERGOTA — ERGOT 313 

Cornutin (Keller) : Impure mixture of ergotinine with er'go- 

^Chrysotoxin (Jacobi) : Inactive yellow coloring matter with a 
small proportion of adherent alkaloid. 

Secalintoxin (Jacobi) : Mixture of ergotoxine and ergotinine. 
Spaeclotoxin (Jacobi) : Impure ergotoxine. 
Hydroergotinin (Kraft) : Recent synonym for ergotoxine. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Ergot. Horses 3 ijss— vj ; 10.— 25. Cattle 3 v— xij ; 25 — 
50. Sheep, goats and swine 3 ss— j ; 2.-5. Dogs grs. 
vij— xxx ; 0.5—2.0. Cats grs. iij— xv; 0.2—1. Fowls, 
retention of eggs, grs. iij — vij ; 0.2 — 0.5. 

Fluidextract : Same as for ergot. 

Extract: Vi—Vs as much as of the crude drug. 

* Wine: 4 times as much as of the fluidextract. 

All these preparations of ergot deteriorate, but the fluidextract is 
as reliable as any and in many cases better than many of the pro- 
prietaries on the market. 

Dose of ergotoxine phosphate, dog, gr. Ho I 0.002 ; tyramm, gr. 
Y 2 ; 0.03. Hypodermically. They are not irritating. 

Standardization. Since ergot varies greatly in its activity and 
deteriorates somewhat quickly, some means of standardization is 
necessary. There is, as yet, no chemic assay which has proved 
satisfactory and the physiologic method is necessary. There are 
three methods of physiologic assay: the blood pressure method, the 
uterine method and the cock's comb method. The first method is 
not good because the pressure effect is no indication of its action 
upon the uterus. The uterine method is satisfactory, but it is too 
expensive. The cock's comb method is based upon the development 
of a purple hue in the comb of a rooster from an injection of ergot. 
The standard is 0.75 mil of the fluidextract per kilo, (= 1.87 mg. 
of ergotoxine phosphate). 

Deterioration. Ergot deteriorates rapidly unless kept from the 
air and several investigators agree that preparations are useless if 
more than a year old. This, however, is not found to be the case 
in clinical experience and corresponds very closely to later researches 
which show that there is a gradual deterioration after two years so 
that those preparations which were five years old required 1.(5 mil 
to produce as much reaction as 0.75 mil of a potent extract. 

Action. The active principles of ergot stimulate those sym- 
pathetic nerve endings which have motor functions and ergotoxine 
in large doses paralyzes them, while the endings of those fibers which 
are concerned with inhibition are not affected by it. Ergot acts 

* Unofficial. 



314 DRUGS ACTING UPON THE GENITAL ORGANS 

"upon a whole group of nerve endings which have similar functions. 
This results in constriction of the blood vessels, with a rise in blood 
pressure, and in contraction of those plain muscles which contract 
in response to stimulation of the sympathetic. Ergotoxine resembles 
the action of adrenaline in its effect upon the motor nerve endings 
or their myoneural junctions of the sympathetic, but differs from 
it in not stimulating those structures concerned in inhibition. 

Local Action. Ergot is irritant to mucous membranes and raw 
surfaces. It does not constrict the vessels of the mucous membrane, 
but when injected subcutaneously there may be a constriction of the 
arteries at the point of injection. Local gangrene sometimes follows 
its use. 

Digestive Tract. Preparations of ergot are irritant locally 
and may cause nausea and vomiting, or, in poisonous doses, a violent 
gastroenteritis. The alkaloids are not irritant. Therapeutic doses 
of ergot decrease intestinal peristalsis by stimulating the ends of the 
splanchnic (inhibitory) nerves, while very large doses cause in- 
creased peristalsis by paralyzing these same nerve endings. This 
action is not seen in the therapeutic use of the drug. 

Circulatory System. Ergotoxine or tyramin injected in- 
travenously will cause a marked rise in blood pressure very similar 
to that of adrenaline, but the rise is slower and its duration three or 
four times as long ; furthermore it may be obtained from oral or 
subcutaneous administration. The constriction of the arterioles at 
the site of injection is not so great as that from adrenaline but is more 
persistent and has resulted in gangrene in some instances. The ac- 
tion is peripheral and appears to be exerted upon the myoneural 
junctions of the vasoconstrictor nerves. 

The isolated heart may be increased in rate and strength but in 
intact animals may be slowed on account of increased blood pres- 
sure. 

According to several writers the effect of tyramin in human 
blood pressure is not marked when given per os and fairly large 
doses were required to increase blood pressure when given hypo- 
dermically. When obtained it resembles a retarded adrenaline ac- 
tion. 

Although the active principles of ergot produce constant results, 
the effect of the preparations of the crude drug are not certain. 
It may produce either a striking rise or fall in pressure. The fall 
is thought to be due to the presence of saponin bodies. It is not 
practical, at least, to administer ergot in therapeutics for increased 
pressure but its alkaloids may be used in emergency. 

Gangrene follows chronic poisoning and is probably due to the 
prolonged powerful constriction of the arterioles which almost com- 
pletely arrests the circulation. 

Chronic poisoning (ergotism) is easily produced in pigs and 



ERGOTA — ERGOT 315 

fowls, and is quite common in cattle fed upon smutted grain. It is 
difficult to produce in dogs and cats. 

Respiratory System. Ergotoxine depresses the respiratory cen- 
ter and renders the breathing slow and shallow. 

Nervous System. Unless long continued, moderate doses have 
no appreciable effect upon this system. But if long continued there 
may be anesthesia, paresthesia, convulsions, tonic contractions of the 
limbs and ataxia. 

Uterus. Ergot produces contraction of the uterus in pregnant 
animals. In the early stages of pregnancy this increase may be 
seen in the strengthening of the normal intermittent contractions 
which take place at this time; and there is a popular belief among 
the laity and in the professions that ergot is abortifacient in the 
early period of pregnancy. Experiments with animals have not 
shown it to possess this power to any marked degree. 

During labor moderate doses tend to increase the normal con- 
tractions and lead to a normal expulsion of the fetus with little if 
any danger to it or the mother. For this reason ergot is often used 
in labor when the contractions are weak and irregular and the fetus 
in normal position. Large doses cause a continuous or tetanic con- 
traction of the uterus, which makes the drug useful after labor to 
hasten postpartum uterine contraction. These large doses should 
not be administered until the uterus is empty because the continu- 
ous contractions might simply contract the uterus upon its contents 
without expelling them. Furthermore the uterus might be rup- 
tured or the offspring asphyxiated by continuous pressure on the 
cord. 

The action of ergot upon the uterus is partly from central origin 
but is largely due to stimulation of the nerve endings in the uterine 
muscle. 

Ergot has some action in checking hemorrhage from the uterus 
but this is due to its power to contract the uterus and to little if any 
action upon the uterine arteries. 

Toxicology. Acute fatal ergot poisoning is not common in 
man or animals. Large doses have been given without producing 
fatal effects and without producing abortion. The more common 
poisoning is of the chronic type (Ergotism) and runs a protracted 
course. It is caused by taking large amounts of the drug at one 
dose or most frequently by taking repeated doses of ergot mixed in 
the food, or by eating smutty corn. 

Chronic poisoning by ergot used to appear quite frequently en- 
demically in man on account of the presence of ergot in flour, espe- 
cially where large amounts of rye were consumed. The ergot grows 
upon the rye and unless destroyed before harvest it becomes mixed 
with the grain when threshing, and is finally ground up in flour. 
The populace in wide areas have been poisoned in this manner 



316 DRUGS ACTING UPON THE GENITAL ORGANS 

and stock suffer in a similar manner. The last outbreak of consicU 
erable size in this country was in New York in 1825. Since the 
cause of the trouble has become known, the outbreaks have not been 
so frequent but still occur in some places, particularly in Russia. 

Ergotism may take so many different forms that they appear to 
have little or no relation to each other. This difference has been 
explained by the fact that the action of the active principles of 
ergot are so different. The two common types are the gangrenous 
and the nervous, both results of the action of the drug upon the 
circulation. Of animals affected, horses, sheep, pigs and cattle ap- 
pear most susceptible, the dog and rabbit less so. 

Gangrenous. The gangrene affects those parts poorest in blood 
supply, the extremities, tail, and ears. The lesions may vary from 
simple sores around the top of the hoof, in the interdigital space, 
upon the teats, etc., to loosening of the sole or wall or sloughing 
of an entire limb. If the entire limb sloughs there is usually a 
circular line of demarcation between the healthy and gangrenous 
area. In man the sloughing usually appears first upon the fingers 
and toes. The gangrene may be dry or moist and does not differ es- 
sentially from other gangrene. The small arteries of the part con- 
tain hyaline plugs as in other cases of gangrene. The theory as to 
the cause of the gangrene has been discussed previously. 

Nervous form. The nervous or spasmodic form is ushered in 
by anesthesia or hyperesthesia of the skin. Both may exist in dif- 
ferent localities of the body at the same time. These conditions 
begin at the extremities and spread toward the body. There are also 
some disturbances of sensation in the digestive tract. There may be 
a craving for food and a lack of appetite at the same time, digestion 
is impaired, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea are common. The in- 
volvement of the central sensory apparatus is shown by the loss of 
special senses. The motor area later begins to be affected, caus- 
ing twitching, tremors, ataxia, convulsions and painful contractions 
of the muscles and delirium. Animals frequetly die in convulsions. 

Treatment: This is purely symptomatic. 

Administration. A good tested preparation should always be 
used. The fluid extract is a serviceable preparation and may be 
given per os, or injected intramuscularly. On account of the con- 
striction of the blood vessels and the local irritant action it should 
not be given subcutaneously. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Labor. Ergot may be used in labor, in small doses, to hasten 
the expulsion of the fetus, when the delay in birth is due to uterine 
inertia and not to mechanical obstruction. For this purpose the use 
of ergot is almost entirely confined to the practice of small animals. 
To use ergot in full doses, in dystokia due to some mechanical ob- 



ECBOLIC VOLATILE OILS 317 

struction, such as abnormal presentation, rigid os, or contracted 
pelvis, is usually dangerous because the strong tetanic contractions 
of the uterus may rupture that organ or may asphyxiate the young 
by increased, prolonged pressure upon the cord. 

2. After parturition, to contract the uterus and so lessen the 
danger of prolapse of the organ. 

3. To check internal hemorrhages, ergot has some reputation 
as a hemostatic agent but there is a difference of opinion in regard 
to the results from its use. 

4. After parturition to constrict the uterus and so lessen the 
liability of hemorrhage. 

5. The active principles may be used in emergency to revive 
blood-pressure in shock and collapse. 

* GOSSYPII CORTEX 

Synonym. Cotton Root Bark 

This is the bark of the root of the ordinary cotton plant. It has 
had some reputation as an abortifacient largely based on its use 
among the slaves of the south for this purpose. 

Ustilago Maydis (Corn Smut) is a smut growing on the stems 
and tassels of Indian corn, Zea Mays. 

Action and Uses. Both of these drugs have some reputation 
as abortifacients and are. said by some authorities to have an ergot- 
like action. Their uses are the same as given for ergot but they 
are probably inferior to that drug. 

Pituitary Body. Solution of the pituitary body is an excellent 
agent in dystokia due to inertia of the uterus, especially in small 
animals and swine. It is administered subcutaneously. See p. 100. 

ECBOLIC VOLATILE OILS 

OLEORESINA PETROSELINI 

Synonym. Liquid Apiol 

This is an oleoresin obtained from the dried ripe fruit of 
Petroselinum sativum or garden parsley. Apiol is a commercial 
preparation of the drug. 

* SENECIO 

Synonyms. Ragwort, Life Root 

The entire plant of Senecio aureus, a perennial herb of the north- 
ern and western parts of the United States. 

Action and Uses. These drugs are irritant and ecbolic, but 
have no indications in veterinary medicine. 

* Unofficial. 



318 DRUGS ACTING UPON THE GENITAL ORGANS 

MYRRH A — MYRRH 

Synonym. Gum Myrrh 

Myrrh is a gum resin obtained from one or more species of 
Commiphora, small trees of eastern Africa and Arabia. It occurs 
in the form of irregular shaped tears, brownish red in color, agree- 
able aromatic odor and bitter taste. 

Doses and Preparations. 

Tinctura Myrrhce, 20 per cent. 

* Tinctura Aloes et Myrrliw,, 10 per cent of each. 

* Mistura Ferri Composita, see iron, p. 405. 

* Pilulw Aloes et Myrrhw, Aloes 2 gr. ; myrrh 1 gr. 
Pilulw Bhei Composite, Dog, 1 pill. 

Action and Uses. Myrrh is an emmenagogue, stimulant to 
mucous membranes and a stimulating expectorant. As an emmena- 
gogue it is usually combined with iron, or aloes. As a stimulant to 
mucous membranes, the tincture is often diluted with water, or solu- 
tion of potassium chlorate, and used as a wash or gargle, in stomatitis, 
etc., as in the following prescription. 

B Potassii Chloratis gr. xl 

Tincturse Myrrhse § jss 

Tincturse Benzoinse Comp 3 v j 

Liquoris Antiseptici N. F. q. s ad. 3 iv 

Teaspoonful in two ounces of water as a gargle or wash every 4 
hours. 

Myrrh has been replaced by more efficient agents as an espec- 
torant. 

* HEDEOMA 

Synonym. Pennyroyal 

The leaves and tops of Hedeoma pulegioides, an annual herb of 
North America. It contains a volatile oil, a bitter and tannic acid. 

* TANACETUM 

Synonym. Tansy 

Tansy is the leaves and tops of Tanecetum vulgare, a perennial 
native to Europe and Asia but naturalized to the United States. 
Active principle is a volatile oil. 

* SABINA 

Synonym. Savine 

The leaves and tops of Juniperus Sahina, an evergreen shrub 
of northern continents. Its activity depends upon a volatile oil. 

* Unofficial. 



UTERINE SEDATIVES 319 

*RUTA 

Synonym. Rue 

This is the leaves of Buta graveolens, a perennial, indigenous to 
southern Europe but cultivated in this country. 

Action and Uses of the Above. All depend upon a volatile oil 
for action and produce the usual symptoms following the administra- 
tion of irritant volatile oils. They have been recommended as ecbolics 
and emmenagogues, but are dangerous to use since the irritation they 
set up on the gastrointestinal tract may be fatal without producing 
abortion. The oil of rue is the basis of the ear treatment of fistulous 
withers by the laity. 

UTERINE SEDATIVES 

A uterine sedative is an agent to lessen the uterine flow, quiet 
the organ and lessen the danger of abortion. But one drug, Vir- 
burnum prunifolium, has been recommended and used for this pur- 
pose. The action is directly opposed to the ecbolics. 

VIBURNUM PRUNIFOLIUM 

Synonym. Black Haw 

The bark of Viburnum prunifolium, a tall flowering shrub com- 
mon in the middle and southern United States. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Fluidextractum Viburni Prunifolii. Mare and cow § j — iv ; 

30—60. Bitch TTLxx— 3ij ; 1.5—8. 
Extractum Viburni Prunifolii. One-fourth the dose of the 

fluidextract. 

Action and Uses. Viburnum contains a bitter, resin, alkaloid, 
valerianic acid, and tannin, together with other less important in- 
gredients. It is particularly recommended to quiet the uterus in 
threatened abortion, but there is no experimental evidence to show 
that it has any action in these cases. Since it contains a considerable 
amount of tannic acid, it may serve as an astringent in diarrhea, and 
as an astringent wash in pharyngitis, etc. Large doses cause pro- 
gressive muscular weakness, ending in complete central nervous and 
cardia paralysis. 

* VIBURNUM OPULUS 

Synonym. Cramp-bark 

This is the bark of a high shrub (high cranberry). It contains 
considerable tannin and is used as an astringent. It has been recom- 
* Unofficial. 



320 DRUGS ACTING UPON THE GENITAL ORGANS 

mended in colic and muscular cramps, hence the name, cramp-bark. 
It is of no importance in veterinary medicine. 

GALACTAGOGUES 

Synonyms. Lactics, Galactics, Stimulants to Milk Secretion 

These are agents which increase the secretion of milk. 

Action and Uses. The different defects in milk secretion are 
very important in cattle practice. The best known conditions are 
agalactia (absence of milk), watery milk, excessively fat milk, pre- 
mature curdling, failure to butter, putrid, roapy, blue, red and yel- 
low milk. Beginning with premature curdling, the rest of the de- 
fects are due to external infection and should be treated as such. 

Galactagogues may be grouped as direct and indirect, the former 
acting directly upon the udder and the latter upon the general con- 
dition of the animal. Since most remedial defects result from di- 
gestive and other disturbances, an improvement in condition will 
bring about an increase in the amount of milk. The indirect galacta- 
gogues include especially the aromatic bitters and alkalies which im- 
prove digestion and consequently increase the milk secretion. 

Cutaneous stimulation applied directly to the udder stimulates 
the secretion reflexly and is an indirect galactagogue. Frequent 
milking, rubbing the udder with nettles, or the application of elec- 
tricity will show the same result. 

Sulphur, antimony preparations and probably solution of the 
pituitary body are direct galactagogues. The first two produce the 
same activity in the mammary glands as upon other glands of the 
body while pituitary extract is believed to increase milk secretion 
through a direct action on the gland together with an increase in 
blood pressure. It is not clear just how the secretion of milk may 
be influenced but it is believed that the mammary glands are subject 
to several influences as in case of other glands. 

Solution of the pituitary body will increase the amount of milk 
and fat for a short period of time in healthy animals. The results ob- 
tained with eserine, pilocarpine and pilocarpidine are contradictory. 
With the exception of solution of the pituitary body these agents have 
generally proved unsuccessful in healthy animals. 

ANTIGALACTAGOGUES 

Synonyms. Antigalactics, Lactifuges, Alactics 

These are agents which decrease the secretion of milk. 

It is sometimes necessary to decrease the secretion of milk, 
especially so in some cases of nonpregnant bitches in estrum. It 
may also be desired when the animal is to be fattened or in ani- 
mals in which lactation persists after death or removal of the off- 



APHRODISIACS AND ANAPHRODISIACS 321 

spring. For this purpose laxatives, potassium iodide, alum and tan- 
nin may be of more use if at the same time the feed is gradually re- 
duced and the interval between milking increased and finally stopped. 
Oil of rosemary or hemp in the form of local applications have 
some reputation for this action. 

APHRODISIACS AND ANAPHRODISIACS 

Synonym. Ecrotics 

Aphrodisiacs are agents which stimulate the sexual desire and in- 
crease the virile power. Since sexual impotence may be the result 
of various conditions, the treatment must vary accordingly. As a 
general rule the cause of impotency in animals unless due to some 
lesion of the tract can be traced to some fault of the nutrition of 
the body, such as obesity, which usually results from too little exer- 
cise and a too liberal diet or errors in diet. In some cases it may 
be due to anemia, and in others to a phlegmatic nervous disposition. 
Rarely is impotency in animals due to nervous depression and psy- 
chic influences as in man. 

In some of the above cases dietary measures are all the treat- 
ment necessary. In others, exercise is needed. If there is reason 
to believe that there is nervous depression, some of the nerve stimu- 
lants should be used. 

The most important aphrodisiacs are : 

ISTux Vomica and Strychnine Cantharides 

Phosphorus D ami ana Yohimbine 

Nux Vomica. This drug serves two purposes. It exerts a 
general tonic effect and at the same time stimulates the sexual cen- 
ters in the cord. 

Phosphorus. Phosphorus has quite a reputation as an aphrodis- 
iac. It is supposed to produce its action through a stimulation of 
the nervous system. There is no doubt but that it is frequently of 
considerable service in impotency due to lowered nervous conditions. 

Cantharides. This drug produces whatever action it may have 
as an aphrodisiac simply by irritation of the bladder and urethra as 
it is excreted. It frequently causes sexual excitement and erections 
but for this effect it is necessary to use large (unsafe) doses. 

* Damiana. This is unofficial. It has long been held as an effi- 
cient aphrodisiac. It probably produces any benefit by stimulation 
of the nervous system. 

* Yohimbine. This is an alkaloid or a mixture of alkaloids ob- 
tained from the bark of a tree, the yohimbe, or Cameroon tree. It 
is indigenous to the Cameroons. The salt used is the hydrochloride 
and can be obtained only through Lehn and Fink, of New York. 

* Unofficial. 



DRUGS ACTING UPON THE GENITAL ORGANS 

Yohimbine has some recommendation as an aphrodisiac. Its 
action was for a time considered as specific, in that it produced a 
local congestion of the penis and testis. This congestion has been 
found, however, to be due to a general dilatation of the vessels and 
not to a specific local effect. Its aphrodisiac action is said to be 
procured in a very short time, almost immediately, in case of the 
lower animals, but it is usually necessary for men to take it for a 
long time. 

Doses. H. grs. %— lV 2 ; 0.05—0.1. D. gr. 1 / 64 — % ; 0.001— 
0.01 ; 3 — 6 times daily, for several days, per os. 

ANAPHRODISIACS 

These are agents which lessen sexual desire. Most of them are 
nerve depressants. The following have the best reputation for this 
action : 

Bromides Camphor 

Hyoscine Lupulin 

They are particularly recommended in nymphomania. The 
bromides and possibly hyoscine are the best. Camphor in the form of 
the monobromate often serves well. These agents are but little used 
in veterinary medicine because animals afflicted with such a condi- 
tion can be better and permanently cured by removal of the ovaries 
or testes. 



CHAPTER XVII 
DIAPHORETICS AND ANTIHYDROTICS 

DIAPHORETICS. SUDORIFICS 

Diaphoretics are agents which increase the secretion of sweat, 
while diaphoresis is profuse sweating. As a class of drugs they 
are of minor importance in veterinary practice, since the horse is 
the only animal with well developed sweat glands in a large area of 
the skin. Cattle do not possess them to any extent and dogs and cats 
only in the pads of the feet. Diaphoresis may be produced in the 
following ways : 

1. Directly increasing the secretory activity of the sweat glands. 

a. Stimulation of the sweat glands either directly or re- 
flexly. 

b. By stimulation of the peripheral nerve endings or glan- 
dular cells. 

II. By action on the circulation in the skin. 

a. Locally. Irritation of the sensory nerves of the skin. 
Counterirritation. 

b. Systemically. 

1. Indirectly. Rise of blood pressure if the cutaneous 
vessels are not simultaneously constricted. 

2. Directly. Dilatation of the cutaneous vessels either 
directly or reflexly or paralysis of the constrictor 
mechanism. 

The character of the sweat differs also as to whether it is produced 
by I or II above. In I, produced by action on the glands, the sweat 
is more concentrated and less alkaline, the skin being cold and blood- 
less. This is the so-called " cold sweat " seen in collapse and is 
usually and rightly considered a serious symptom, as it is an indica- 
tion of asphyxia. It is caused by stimulation of the sweat center by 
the C0 2 in the venous blood. 

In II, sweat produced by increased circulation, the skin is warm 
and red (in unpigmented spots). This sweat is low in solids and 
resembles a serous exudate. Dilatation of the cutaneous vessels pro- 
duces an increase in sweat when other conditions are favorable yet the 

sweating mechanism may be entirely independent of this dilatation. 

323 



324 DIAPHORETICS AND ANTIHYDROTICS 

This is shown by the dilated condition of the vessels of the skin in 
fever with dry skin and in the cold sweat mentioned above. 
Diaphoresis may be produced by: 

1. Application of heat. As hot air, vapor, water or sand baths. 

2. By preventing heat loss and increasing heat production; this 
is done either by preventing the loss of heat through evaporation 
(cover of some impervious material) or by protecting the skin from 
the external atmosphere. Blankets act partly in both ways. 

3. Supplying heat in form of hot drinks. 

4. Dilatation of the cutaneous vessels. In this instance probably 
alcohol in hot drink is superior in man at least. Then next probably 
comes spirits of nitrous ether. This same dilatation may be pro- 
duced by irritation of the cutaneous nerves either from the circula- 
tion (aconite) or by counterirritation (sinipism). 

5. Nauseants. One of the characteristics of the nauseant stage 
of emetics is sweating. Any emetic may be used for this purpose 
whose action is easily controlled, or restricted to the desired action. 
Dover's powder is probably the best example of this action as it 
possesses the additional narcotic and diaphoretic effect of morphine. 

6. Stimulation of the sweat center. Camphor is efficient in this 
manner although ammonia and especially liquor ammonium acetate 
are probably more useful. In this group belong the whole pilocar- 
pine series although pilocarpine alone is used in practice. 

The sweat glands are also stimulated by muscular exercise and 
strong emotion but these cannot be utilized in medicine. 

GENERAL INDICATIONS FOR DIAPHORETICS 

In the early days of medicine sudorifics were used for a large 
number of purposes and conditions. Then they were practically dis- 
carded for a while and only comparatively recently has their use 
been revived. Their uses may be summarized as follows : 

1. Remove fluid from the body. 

2. Remove injurious substances from the body. 

3. Promote a normal condition of a disturbed circulation. 

4. Relieve the kidneys. 

5. Increase the alkalinity of the tissues. 

6. Ophthalmology. 

7. Reduce temperature in fever. 

1. Remove Fluids from the Body. 

a. Promote absorption of dropsical effusions. They are of no 
practical use in inflammatory local effusions as in the pleura and 
pericardium. 

b. In the treatment of obesity. Here they are occasionally used 
according to the following plan: The carbohydrates are withheld 



INDICATIONS FOR DIAPHORETICS 325 

at the same time. The object is to compel the body to form its neces- 
sary amount of water from combustion of the adipose tissue. Any 
diaphoretic may be used except hot drinks. 

2. Remove Poisons. Either those substances introduced from 
without or formed in the body. They are quite valuable in poison- 
ing by As., Pb., Hg., nicotine, morphine, and fevers. 

3. Reestablish a Disturbed Circulation in the Skin, and in 
this manner relieve congestion of the internal organs. It is for this 
purpose that they are employed in colds, rheumatism, etc., or a cold 
skin from any cause. To relieve a local congestion as in pneumonia 
or inflammation of the lungs, pleura, etc., the same or even better 
results may be obtained by counterirritation. 

4. Relieve Inflamed or Overworked Kidneys. 

5. Increase the Alkalinity of the Tissues. In such cases as 
gout, oxy butyric acid (diabetic coma), etc. For this purpose they 
are of but little use in veterinary practice. 

6. Ophthalmology. They have been found useful in conges- 
tive and exudative lesions of the uvealtract, in retinal displacements 
and toxic blindness. They are of absolutely no value in atrophic 
or cicatricial lesions. 

7. Reduce Temperature in Fevers. The most common 
are: 

Pilocarpine Spirits of nitrous ether 

Opium Ammonium acetate 

Ipecac Warburg's tincture 

Pilocarpine is used principally in renal dropsies. It is not 
usually effective in local effusion of an inflammatory nature as in 
effusions in the pleura or pericardium. In the horse, the only dumb 
animal which sweats uniformly, pilocarpine seems to have a more 
specific action on the salivary than the sweat glands. Hence it is 
of but little service as a sudorific. 

Opium. As a diaphoretic opium is usually given in the form of 
Dover's powders. It has a mild sudorific effect and is useful in 
breaking up acute catarrhal conditions of the respiratory tract and 
relieving so-called muscular rheumatism. 

Spirits of Nitrous Ether. Therapeutic doses of this agent act 
as mild diaphoretics, diuretics and antispasmodics. Its diaphoretic 
effect is more marked if the patient is kept well covered while its 
diuretic effect is more marked if the patient is not well covered. It 
is useful as a diaphoretic in the mild febrile conditions of the young 
in small doses well diluted with hot water repeated at frequent in- 
tervals. 

Ammonium Acetate. This is usually used as the official solu- 
tion — Liquor Ammonii Acetatis. It serves as either a diuretic or 
diaphoretic according as to whether the patient is kept warm or cool. 



326 DIAPHORETICS AND ANTIHYDROTICS 

It is frequently used as a vehicle for spirits of nitrous ether or aco- 
nite. 

ANTIHYDROTICS 

These are agents which act exactly opposite to those just dis- 
cussed. That is, they decrease the secretion of sweat. Theoretically 
they may act by: 

1. Lessening the irritability of the sweat centers. 

2. By depressing the peripheral fibers of secretory nerves or the 

the gland cells themselves. 

3. By depressing the respiratory center. 

In regard to the last method Brunton has called attention to the 
close relation between respiratory depression and the occurrence of 
profuse sweating. He states that when the respiratory center is 
exhausted from any cause it responds less readily than the sweat cen- 
ters to the stimulating influence of venous blood in consequence of 
which profuse sweating occurs. This accounts for the fact that res- 
piratory stimulants are frequently efficacious in controlling the night 
sweats of tuberculosis. The most important antihydrotics are: 

Atropine Agaricin 

Sulphuric acid Picrotoxin 

Camphoric acid Tellerium compounds 

Thallium acetate 

Gallic acid, ergot and zinc oxide have also been employed but 
are of very doubtful value. Certain external remedies are also use- 
ful in excessive sweating, such as sponging with a solution of vinegar 
and water, or a hydroalcoholic solution of tannin or alum. A weak 
solution of formalin answers well but is irritant to the eyes and 
respiratory tract. There are no specific indications for the use of 
antihydrotics in veterinary medicine, and they are used in human 
practice principally in night sweats of tuberculosis. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
HEMOSTATICS OR STYPTICS 

These are agents used to control hemorrhage. They may be con- 
veniently classified as those which act locally, " styptics," and those 
which affect the body generally, " general hemostatics." They all 
arrest hemorrhage in a manner similar to nature in spontaneously 
closing a bleeding vessel. Ordinarily if an artery is cut, it con- 
tracts within its sheath and the tissues fall in around the cut end. 
In addition, if the bleeding is severe, the blood pressure will fall 
and the coagulability of the blood increase. The choice of an 
hemostatic depends upon the location of the hemorrhage and its 
source; that is, is the bleeding point accessible, and is the source 
of the blood arterial, venous or capillary ? Some mechanical means 
should always be used to arrest hemorrhage from a large artery. 
This may be accomplished either by ligature, clamp, forceps, torsion 
or the actual cautery. Slight or capillary hemorrhage may often 
be quite effectively stopped by local applications of astringents or 
by vasoconstrictors. Among the most satisfactory of these agents is 
cold, either in the form of cold water or ice. Adrenaline and the 
styptics (astringents), tannin, alum, etc., are also quite serviceable. 
In addition to the above some method must be employed to control 
distant, inaccessible hemorrhages which can be reached only through 
the circulation (general hemostatics). 

The principal local hemostatics are: 

1. Mechanical measures f All act by closing the vessels 

2. Cold -j either by direct compression or 

3. Adrenaline. [through vasoconstriction. 

4. Agents favorable to the formation of a clot. Absorbent cotton, 
gauze. Cobweb has been used for ages but is dirty. 

5. Those which act by precipitating the proteids of the blood. 
Astringents, tannin, alum, etc. 

The general hemostatics are: 

1. Tannic acid group of drugs and mineral astringents. 

2. Agents to lower blood pressure. 

3. Vasoconstrictors, adrenaline, ergot, etc. 

4. Coagulants. 

1. Tannic Acid Group. The various members of this group 
have been recommended as general hemostatics but there is no foun- 

327 



328 HEMOSTATICS OR STYPTICS 

elation for their use with the exception of the fact that they do arrest 
hemorrhage when applied locally. The tannic acid preparations un- 
dergo changes before they are absorbed which render them useless 
for hemorrhages beyond the digestive tract. On the other hand, 
there is little reason to believe that the mineral astringents circulate 
in the blood in sufficient concentration to be in any way effective. 

2. Agents to Lower Blood Pressure. This is not a very im- 
portant group therapeutically but they should not be overlooked. 
They might be used unless the hemorrhage has been profuse. One 
of the first considerations of the treatment of internal hemorrhage 
is to put the patient at rest and keep it as quiet as possible, since 
rest favors the formation of a clot, while motion favors bleeding or 
breaking down of the clot. Some of the hypnotics are particularly 
serviceable for this purpose. Morphine is exceptionally useful in 
dog and man. The bleeding part should be raised as much as possi- 
ble as this tends to lower blood pressure in the part. 

Vasodilators do not give very satisfactory results. As hemostat- 
ics they should dilate all the vessels except the bleeding ones but of 
course this action is impossible to obtain. They would be indicated, 
if at all, in hemorrhages from vessels not easily dilated as in the 
muscles and lungs. 

3. Vasoconstrictors. These are in a class similar to the dila- 
tors. That is, for therapeutic action to control hemorrhage, they 
should constrict the bleeding vessels but dilate the others. The great 
obstacle in the path of the constrictors in arresting hemorrhages is 
that a general vasoconstriction is accompanied with a rise of blood 
pressure. Consequently although these agents may constrict the 
bleeding vessels, in so doing they raise arterial tension to such an 
extent as to equal if not more than compensate for any effect the 
constriction would have upon the bleeding part. 

There are a few exceptions to the last statement, however, as 
there is no doubt but that ergot and hydrastinine are very efficacious 
in post partum hemorrhage, but their value in other hemorrhages is 
very doubtful. 

Adrenaline belongs to this group and clinical experience seems 
to indicate that it is of considerable value in distant hemorrhage al- 
though it does increase blood pressure. 

4. Coagulants. These drugs increase the coagulability of the 
blood which is desired when there is severe bleeding from slight 
wounds as in purpurea hemorrhagica, hemophilia, epistaxis, hemopta- 
sis, renal and intestinal hemorrhage, etc. The principal drugs used 
for this purpose are gelatin, calcium lactate and calcium chloride. 
With the exception of gelatin, stypticin and the calcium salts, the dif- 
ferent members of these groups have been discussed in other places. 



GELATINUM — GELATIN 329 

COTARNINAE HYDRO CHLORIDUM 

Synonym. Stypticine hydrochloride 

This is an artificial alkaloid obtained by hydrolyzing narcotin, one 
of the opium alkaloids and treating the resulting cotarnine with hy- 
drochloric acid. It resembles hydrastinine in its composition, oc- 
curs in the form of a yellow powder or crystals, has a bitter taste and 
is freely soluble in alcohol and water. It has been recommended in 
the same conditions as hydrastinine and as a local remedy to arrest 
hemorrhage. It may be applied in solution with a tampon and is 
said to be valuable in persistent epistaxis. 

GELATINUM 

Synonym. Gelatin 

Gelatin is the dried product of the action of boiling water upon 
animal tissues, such as skin, ligaments, tendons and bones. It oc- 
curs in transparent thin sheets and is without odor or taste. It is in- 
soluble in cold water, soluble in hot water and if in solutions over 
2 per cent, gelatinizes upon cooling. Solutions heated above 230° F. 
do not gelatinize. 

Preparation. 

Gelatinum Glycerinatum. Glycerinated gelatin. Gelatin 
100 gms., glycerin 100 gms., water enough to make 200 
mils. 

Action. Dastre and Floresco, in 1896, demonstrated that the 
blood drawn from a dog which had received intravenously a 5 per 
cent, solution of gelatin coagulated almost immediately and that the 
same results could be obtained by adding gelatin to the blood out- 
side the body. As proof that the solidification was due to clotting 
and not to gelatinizing, they also demonstrated that the coagulation 
would occur at a temperature of 38° C. (100.1° F. ) at which a 5 
per cent, solution of gelatin will not jellify. Moreover they also 
demonstrated that the action could be obtained in solutions below the 
necessary per cent, for jellifying (2 per cent.). 

Lancereaux and Paulesco (1898) determined that subcutaneous 
injections of gelatin were equally effective as intravenous injec- 
tions for increasing the coagulability of the blood. It has not yet 
been determined whether its action is effected by digestion although 
some practitioners have reported success in hemorrhages when it has 
been administered by mouth or rectum. There has been no satisfac- 
tory explanation advanced to account for the action of gelatin upon 
the coagulability of the blood. 

Hogan (1915) reported several experiments and actual cases in 
human practice in which gelatin has been used successfully in shock. 



330 HEMOSTATICS OR STYPTICS 

It is well known that the ordinary infusion solutions (physiological 
salt solution, Ringer's solution, Lock's solution) stay in the blood 
vessels but a short time and consequently the improvement, which is 
marked almost immediately, often wears off within an hour or so. 
On the other hand it is known that colloidal solutions will remain in 
the blood vessels for a considerable time. 

On account of the difficulty of transfusion of blood, injection of 
blood serum, ascitic or hydrocele fluid, he sought a colloidal solu- 
tion which might be used. His reports of experiments and actual 
cases show that gelatin solutions may be used intravenously in shock 
without danger and with very gratifying results. 

Therapeutics. Gelatin has proved very serviceable in both 
internal and external hemorrhage and in shock. As a local remedy 
it has proved very efficient in epistaxis, hemorrhoids, and oozing from 
open wounds. It has been reported as beneficial in internal hemor- 
rhage such as hemoptysis, hemophilia, hematuria, and enterorrhagia. 
For local hemorrhages a 10 per cent, solution may be applied upon 
tampon. The solutions should be sterilized and may have added to 
them a small amount of phenol to prevent putrefaction. 

1. For Systemic Action. Gelatin may be given subcutane- 
ously in doses of 15 to 45 grains for dogs or 2 drams to an ounce for 
horses, in a 5 to 10 per cent, solution once or twice daily. It is 
best administered in normal salt solution. A 10 per cent, solution 
may be prepared by dissolving 1% ounces (50 gm.) of gelatin and 35 
grains (2.5 gm.) of salt in a pint of water (500 mils). This should 
be clarified and sterilized by the fractional method for three or four 
consecutive days. A careful sterilization is necessary because tet- 
anus often follows the subcutaneous use of gelatin. 

According to some authorities, gelatin will produce good re- 
sults when administered per rectum as in the following manner: 
A 6 per cent, solution of gelatin in normal salt solution, to which 
a little opium may be added to prevent expulsion, is used. (The 
opium is of questionable value at most.) The doses are for small 
animals 1% ounces, and for large ones 10 ounces to one pint, warmed 
to body temperature. This should be repeated after 4 or 5 hours if 
there is still danger of hemorrhage. The bowels should of course be 
first cleansed by an enema, preferably of boiled water. 

2. In Shock. Hogan recommends the following solutions, but 
specifies that the gelatin must be fresh and of the highest quality : 

Twenty-five grams of the purest gelatin, 1.5 gm. of sodium chlor- 
ide and 100 mils of distilled water are placed in a flask and boiled for 
15 minutes. The resulting solution is filtered through heavy paper 
in a hot funnel and then autoclavecl for an hour at 124° C It is 
then chilled in an ice box. The gelatin has the proper colloidal 
qualifications if it solidifies under these circumstances. It is to be 
kept in this form until needed. In order to prepare the transfusion 



CALCIUM CHLORIDE AND CALCIUM LACTATE 331 

mixture, the gelatin is warmed until it melts when it is added to 1000 
mils of 0.9 per cent, sodium chloride, to which has been added 2 
gms. of sodium carbonate crystals, and warmed to body temperature. 
The usual amount administered in man is 500 to 750 mils. 

CALCIUM CHLORIDE AND CALCIUM LACTATE 

Calcium chloride occurs as white, translucent, hard fragments, 
odorless, of a sharp saline taste, and very deliquescent. It is soluble 
in 1.3 parts of water and 8 of alcohol. 

Calcium lactate is a white crystalline powder, not readily soluble 
in water unless freshly prepared. 

Dose of either salt is : 

H. % ss— j ; 15.— 30. D. gr. v— xx; 0.3—1.3. 

Action and Uses. These salts possess the power of causing the 
blood to coagulate more readily outside the body and according to 
some investigators (Wright) the same result is obtained when they 
are administered internally. They have been recommended in 
hemophilia and in general the same conditions in which gelatin is 
recommended as a hemostatic but their action is uncertain. 



CHAPTER XIX 
IRRITANTS AND COUNTERIRRITANTS 

Ikeitajstts are agents which cause hyperemia and inflammation 
when applied to the surface of the body. When applied for the relief 
of disease in remote parts of the body they are called counterirritants. 

Counterirritation or irritation of the skin for internal diseases, 
is a practice which dates back to the earliest days of medicine. The 
theories upon which the practice is based have changed very fre- 
quently to meet the advances in medical science. In the early days 
when disease was considered as an entity, or humor, the theory of 
revulsion or derivation was much in vogue. The purpose of the irri- 
tation of the skin was to draw the disease from the deeper portions 
to the skin. Then it was held that if fluid was drawn to the skin, con- 
gestion of the internal organs would be relieved. This theory has also 
held more or less even in modern times. It was also noticed very 
early in medicine that counterirritation often relieved the pain in in- 
ternal organs. The irritation was obtained in various ways. Many 
drugs were used, also many mechanical devices, such as burning, elec- 
tricity, or setons or rowels introduced.. The last two named agents 
not only served as irritants but also supplied a means of exit for the 
humor. Most of these theories are interesting only from a historical 
standpoint, but counterirritation is still used for the relief of pain of 
internal organs, and to produce a change in the distribution of blood. 

These agents may be classified into three groups according to the 
intensity of their action. If they simply produce redness under 
ordinary conditions they are termed rubifacients. If the action is 
more intense and blisters are formed, they are termed vesicants, 
while if they produce pustulation in the necks of the glands, they are 
termed pustulants. 

Action. The action of these agents may be described as local 
and remote. 

Local action. This is evidenced by a feeling of warmth to the 
part, burning or pain ; the skin becomes reddened, congested and sen- 
sitive. These symptoms last for some time and recede gradually. 
Some desquamation may follow if the irritant has been applied for 
some time. If a stronger irritant is used, the same symptoms as de- 
scribed above will occur, but will be followed by small vesicles under 
the epidermis. These may coalesce so that a large vesicle or blister 
is formed. Upon removal of the vesicant, the fluid is slowly ab- 

332 



METHODS OF PRODUCING IRRITATION 333 

sorbed, leaving an empty sac under the skin. If still greater action 
is secured, the first two steps will be repeated, but these will be fol- 
lowed by small pustules. The reason for the distant separate pus- 
tules instead of a diffuse inflammation is based upon the theory that 
the agent is unable to pass through the horny layer of the skin but 
can pass in and irritate the orifices of the glands. The local ef- 
fects produced from irritants are exactly similar to other forms of 
inflammation, pain, swelling, redness, etc. 

Remote Action. Certain changes in the entire organism always 
accompany local irritation. These are due to stimulation of various 
centers in the medulla and are generally believed to account for any 
benefit from counterirritation. The centers particularly involved are 
those regulating the heart, vasomotor and respiratory. A moderate 
degree of irritation accelerates the heart, through some unknown 
manner, while stronger irritation slows the heart through stimula- 
tion of the vagus center. Blood pressure is raised by moderate stim- 
ulation but on account of the decreased rate of the heart is lowered 
by sharp irritation. The increase in blood pressure is probably due 
to stimulation of the vasomotor center which constricts the blood 
vessels over wide areas. This constriction is not general but is more 
pronounced in the abdominal vessels, less so in the limbs and skin. 
The respirations are stimulated by mild irritation but depressed by 
stronger ones. 

Methods of Producing Irritation and Counterirritation. 

1. Bacterial. 

2. Friction and massage. 

3. Acupuncture. 

4. Scarification. 

5. Temperature. 

6. Cupping, venesection and leeches, 

7. Electricity. 

8. Drugs. 

1. Bacterial. This method was widely used in the early days of 
medicine but is now obsolete. It consisted in using setons or rowels, 
which were pieces of gauze or other fibrous material, pushed under 
the skin and allowed to suppurate. Occasionally a piece of some 
vegetable was placed beneath the skin to act as a foreign body and 
cause suppuration. 

2. Friction and massage. Here the benefit is due partly to the 
friction produced and partly to the massage of the parts. The bene- 
fit obtained from the use of liniments is partly due to the friction 
produced during their application. 

3. Acupuncture. This consists of thrusting fine needles deeply 
into the tissues. It causes considerable inflammation and is said to 



334 IRRITANTS AND COUNTERIRRITANTS 

be quite effective in lumbago and sciatica. It is rarely used in mod- 
ern medicine. 

4. Scarification. This consists of making numerous small in- 
cisions with a knife or other instrument such as rubbing with needles. 
The irritant may then be rubbed in and will have a greater degree 
of action. 

5. Temperature. Cold applications are often used for their re- 
mote reflex action, while some form of heat is used for local effect. 
The actual cautery is often very serviceable for deep seated affections. 

6. Cupping, etc. Cupping or leeching simply brings about a 
change in the distribution of blood to the parts. A small amount is 
sometimes extracted in this manner. Leeches act in the same ~ way 
but are not used in modern medicine. See p. 110. 

1. Electricity is used as a stimulant to prevent atrophy of muscles, 
in paralysis and as a counterirritant. 
8. Drugs. 

Uses of Irritants and Counterirritants. 

1. In skin diseases. 

2. Promote secretion of sweat. 

3. For reflex action by affecting the central nervous system espe- 
cially the medulla. 

4. As counterirritants. 

5. Relieve pain. 

(a) To change the distribution of blood and diminish deep 
chronic inflammation. 

(b) To remove exudate from connective tissue in a similar 
manner. 

(c) Relieve pain. 

(d) Tonic action. 

1. Skin Diseases. Some long standing or chronic forms of skin 
disease are often benefited by the action of an irritant. This is par- 
ticularly so in ulcers, chronic eczema, and slow healiug wounds. 
Some of the milder irritants are usually employed such as the bal- 
sams, tar, or light painting with iodine. 

2. Promote Diaphoresis (see diaphoretics). 

3. Reflex Irritation of Central Nervous System. They may 
be used in this case to arouse the system in collapse and shock, and in 
narcotic poisoning. They may be given subcutaneously or by in- 
halation (ammonia).- In the latter case the action is produced by 
irritation of the trigeminal nerve. 

4. Counterirritants. (a) Local changes in the circulation of 
parts remote from the point of application can be accounted for in 
two ways : through a continuity with the seat of irritation, or by re- 
flex action. In the former case an increased vascularity of the skin 



USES OF IRRITANTS AND COUNTERIRRITANTS 335 

may influence the neighboring organs in two ways. 1. Cause hy- 
peremia of the organs along with its own hyperemia, or 2. may 
withdraw blood from the organs and leave them anemic. In one case 
a better blood supply is obtained for the part and better conditions 
made for the absorption of the exudate. The increased blood supply 
means an increased nutrition of the part which really aids nature 
in overcoming some pathological condition. Firing or blistering for 
spavin or diseases of the joints produces a reparative inflammation 
which assists nature in locking the bones together so that pain and 
lameness is relieved. At the same time it assists by producing a 
period of rest for the part which is also useful in these conditions. 

The use of irritants for the removal of exudates from connective 
tissue can be explaned by the increased circulation and nutrition. To 
produce a change in the vascularity of the skin and remove inflam- 
matory exudates, it is necessary to employ deeply acting and per- 
sistent stimulation. 

5. Relieve Pain. It has been known for many years that the 
application of heat or counterirritants in certain superficial areas 
would relieve pain and inflammatory processes in the deeper organs. 
The use of counterirritants for this purpose was purely empirical 
but nevertheless effective and could not be satisfactorily explained 
for a long time. Mackenzie and Head working upon the inervation 
of the viscera have somewhat cleared up the matter in case of man. 
They found that disease of the viscera is often accompanied by ten- 
derness of the skin and underlying muscles, and that the pain arising 
in these cases is referred to this area and not to the organ involved. 
Thus in painful diseases of the stomach, tenderness is often found 
in the skin and muscles of the epigastrium. In heart disease the pain 
is often in the left chest wall and shoulder extending down the arm. 
It was found also that the internal organs and definite areas upon the 
surface of the body receive their nerve supply from the same spinal 
or cranial segment and that irritation of one will react upon the 
other. It is interesting to know that the areas marked out experi- 
mentally on the surface of the body, as those affected by internal dis- 
ease, correspond very closely to those areas used empirically, and 
upon which experience has shown irritation to be most beneficial. 

Counterirritants are usually employed in the form of liniments, 
i.e., in solution or suspension in oils or alcohol. These liniments are 
too numerous to mention. Likewise the drugs used for counterirri- 
tation are numerous and only those will be mentioned here that are 
used especially for this purpose. 

Most important counterirritants are: 

Cantharides Ammonia Red iodide of mercury 

Mustard Chloroform Mercuric chloride 

Iodine Camphor Euphorbium 

Capsicum Aconite Volatile oils 



336 IRRITANTS AND COUNTERIRRITANTS 

Those used for local systemic effect are : 

Chrysarobin Balsam of Peru 

Oil of cade Jequirty 

CANTHARIS 

Synonyms. Spanish Flies, Cantharides 

This is official as the dried beetles, Cantharis vesicatoria, largely 
secured from the southern part of Europe. Its active principle is 
cantharidin, an anhydrid of cantharidic acid. It is a crystalline body 
forming soluble salts with alkalies. 

Preparations. 

Tinctura Cantharidis 10 per cent. H. H\xxx — 3j ; 2. — . 
D. TTLij— TTlv; 0.13— 1. 

Ceratum Cantharidis. Cantharides 35 gms., Glacial acetic 
acid 2.5 mils, oil of turpentine 1.5 mils, yellow wax and 
rosin each 17.5 gms., and benzoinated lard 20 gms. 

Collodium CantJmridatum, 60 per cent. Cantharides. 

Externally and Locally. Applied to the skin, cantharides pro- 
duces irritation, redness and burning, followed by vesication. If 
the action is allowed to continue, it may lead to pustulation, or ul- 
ceration and sloughing. When applied in properly prepared oint- 
ment, vesication will be produced in from 3 — 12 hours. The effects 
are not believed to extend very deeply, but it is one of the most 
useful blisters in veterinary medicine. But if the blister is too 
strong or used too freely, inflammation of the deeper layers of the 
skin may occur with suppuration and in extreme cases sloughing; 
the hair bulbs become injured and a permanent blemish results. It 
is also irritant to the mucosa. If applied to too large an area of 
the skin, absorption may occur and result in the symptoms to be 
described under internal action. 

Internally. There is no effect of therapeutic doses upon the 
digestive tract except that of mild irritation. Through its elim- 
ination by the urinary tract, small doses are slightly diuretic, genito- 
urinary stimulant and aphrodisiac according to some authorities, 
although any aphrodisiac power is due to its irritant action on the 
mucosa as it escapes from the body. The action of large doses is 
discussed under toxicology. 

Absorption and Elimination. Cantharides is absorbed from 
all surfaces. It is sometimes absorbed from the skin in sufficient 
amounts to give trouble and is always contraindicated in nephritis. 
It is almost entirely eliminated by the kidneys. 

Toxicology. The symptoms of poisoning may be divided into 
two groups : those produced upon the digestive tract before absorp- 
tion and those produced upon the genito-urinary tract during elim- 



CANTHARIS — CANTHAHIDES 337 

ination. In the former there are symptoms of severe irritation of 
the gastro-intestinal canal, burning in the mouth and throat, ab- 
dominal pain, dysphagia, thirst, ptyalism, vomiting and purging of 
bloody mucus. Prominent among the symptoms of irritation of 
the genito-urinary tract are pain in the lumbar region, frequent 
urination, vesicle tenesmus, with passages of a few drops of bloody 
albuminous urine, and in males, priapism. Erotic excitement some- 
times takes place and abortion may follow from the results of the 
irritation of the drug upon the pelvic organs. 

Treatment. Evacuate the stomach and relieve the local condi- 
tions by the free use of demulcents. Administer some anodyne to 
combat the pain. Avoid fatty substances, since they tend to dis- 
solve the cantharidin and favor its absorption. The strangury may 
be treated by applying hot packs to the posterior part of the abdo- 
men. 

Therapeutics. Externally. It is chiefly used as a vesicant 
and counter-irritant. The action is too slow and irritating and the 
danger from absorption too great for use as a counterirritant over 
large areas (chest and abdomen) in pneumonia, pleurisy, colic, etc. 
Mustard, turpentine and heat are to be preferred for these diseases. 
A cantharideal blister is often serviceable in acute inflammation of 
the brain or the meninges and should be applied over the region of 
the poll. It may also be useful in acute laryngitis when applied to 
the throat, or for paraplegia when applied over the diseased parts. 

Cantharides is the remedy most often used for counterirritation 
in cases of rheumatism of muscles or joints, placed over the diseased 
parts or, if the disease is acute, near by. It is also often prescribed 
for the treatment of disease of the bones, joints, ligaments, bursas, 
tendons, etc. In diseases of the bones with exostosis, a blister is 
usually applied after the use of the actual cautery, while in many 
cases a strong blister, combined with complete rest will often relieve 
these conditions. 

A cantharidin or other blister is often serviceable in closing an 
open joint. According to some authorities they are also used to 
close small umbilical hernias. 

As a stimulant to the growth of hair in alopecia. Here it is 
usually employed in the form of 'the tincture. 

Internally. Cantharides is rarely used internally, but may be 
of service in incontinence of the urine, due to relaxation of the neck 
of the bladder, and as a stimulant in cystitis and pyelitis. It has 
been recommended as an aphrodisiac, but the necessary doses for this 
action are unsafe. 

Administration. Eor internal use the tincture should be em- 
ployed. For external purposes, it is usually mixed with some fatty 
material, volatile oil or alcohol, and applied as an ointment or lini- 
ment. 



328 IRRITANTS AND COUNTERIRRITANTS 

The following are representative prescriptions for cantharides 
blisters : 

fy Cantharides. 

Cerse Flavse aa 5 ij 

Adipis 3 xiv 

M. For external use. 

A stronger one is, 

R Cantharides. 

Euphorbii aa 2. 

Hydr. Chi. Corros 1. 

Petrolati 8. 

Cerati 12. 

or for deep action : 

R Cantharides 3 J 

Hydrargyri Iodidi Rubri aa 3 j 

Adipis 3 j 

Cautions in the Application of Counter irritants. 

1. Cantharides is not a safe blister for dogs, because it is liable 
to cause too severe action. Furthermore, it may be absorbed from 
the skin or licked off by the animal in sufficient quantity to produce 
toxic action. 

2. Cantharides is contraindicated as a blister in urinary affec- 
tions or cases of general debility or weakness. 

3. Counterirritants should not be used in acute inflammatory 
conditions. 

SINAPIS ALBA (White mustard) and SINIPIS NIGRA (Black 

mustard). 

The former is the seed of Sinipis alba, and the latter the seed of 
Brassica nigra. Both varieties are quite widely distributed in 
Europe and America, often growing as weeds, but frequently culti- 
vated. The mustard of commerce is usually a combination of both 
varieties. 

Dose, Carminative. H. 3ij — iv; 8 — 16. 

Dose, Emetic. D. oj — ij ; 4. — 8. In a cup of warm water. 

Constituents. White mustard contains myrosin, a ferment, 
and sinalbin, a glucoside. In the presence of water the ferment acts 
upon the glucoside and separates from it an acrid fixed oil, Acrinyl- 
isothiocyanate. The black variety also contains the above ferment, 
together with sinigrin, which in the presence of water yields a very 
irritable, volatile oil (Oleum Sinapis Volatile — allyl-isothio- 
cyanate). It is far too irritant, to be used alone but may be used as 



THIOSINAMINE — FIBROLYSIN 339 

spiritus sinapis. This is composed of volatile oil of mustard, 1 part, 
alcohol, 50 parts. 
Preparation. 

Emplastrum Sinapis. For external application. 

Action. If mixed into a paste with water and applied to 
the skin mustard produces heat, redness, burning, pain, and if the 
action or contact is prolonged, vesication. Since the vesicles do not 
heal readily, mustard is used externally almost entirely as a rubi- 
facient. It is very rapid in action. If applied as a paste or as the 
official plaster, it is often very serviceable for the relief of pain in 
various conditions, such as gastritis, pleurisy, pneumonia and rheu- 
mastism. The plaster may be made as follows: Mustard or mus- 
tard and flour in different strengths up to equal parts are mixed into 
a paste with warm water, and either applied directly upon the part 
or spread between two layers of muslin. Hot water should not be 
used because it destroys the ferment which is required to produce 
the irritant oil from the glucoside. The spirit can be used instead 
of the plaster, and has the advantage of being more cleanly and 
more easily removed. Plasters or other applications should be left 
on for a short time only or until the skin becomes red, then removed, 
as a general rule, but may be left longer if the pain still persists. It 
is not a good plan, however, to repeat the plaster frequently for 
counterirritant effect, because considerable irritation may result. 

Internally. Mustard is used as an emetic and carminative. As 
an emetic it is very active and produces action by directly irritating 
the walls of the stomach. It should be given in doses of one to two 
teaspoonfuls in a half cup of tepid water, and repeated in a short 
time if necessary. 

As a carminative it is entirely used for the large animals. It 
appears particularly serviceable in old animals with intestinal 
catarrh, due to atony of the bowels, and is often prescribed along 
with Nux vomica and Carlsbad salts for this condition. 

*Thiosinamine (allyl-sulphocarbamide). This is produced 
by heating oil of mustard with alcohol and ammonia. The irritat- 
ing properties of the oil are lost in the process. It occurs as a 
white crystalline principle and has been recommended for destroying 
scar tissue and in lupus. It can be given dogs hypodermically in 
doses of 1 or 2 grains in glycerin and water or by the mouth in daily 
doses of 3 grains. The injection need not be at the site of the lesion. 
The results of its use are still in some doubt. 

"Fibrolysin. This is the trade name for a sterile solution of a 
double salt of thiosinamine and salicylate of soda. It is freely sol- 
uble in water. It is equivalent in action to the first named number 
of its constituents, but may be given subcutaneously, intramuscu- 

* Unofficial. 



340 IRRITANTS AND COUNTERIRRITANTS 

larly or intravenously. Injections are made at intervals of 1 — 3 
days and may require many repetitions. It is less irritant locally 
than thiosinamine. Its action is to soften scar tissues and perhaps 
to promote its absorption. Reports of its use are contradictory, 
many successes and failures having been reported. It has been suc- 
cessfully used in hypertrophied scars of the skin, in structure 
opacities of cornea, etc. It is said to be useless in corneal opacities 
of long standing. 

It is contraindicated in active inflammatory conditions, in tuber- 
culosis and in ulceration of the digestive tract. 

It is marketed in ampules of 2.3 mils of solution, representing 3 
grains (0.2 gm.) of thiosinamine. 

CHRYSAROBINUM — CHRYSAROBIN 

This is official as a more or less impure neutral principle, ob- 
tained from Goa powder, a substance found in the heart wood of 
Vouacapoua Araroba, a large tree of Brazil. Chrysarobin is a yellow 
crystalline powder, odorless, tasteless, slightly soluble in water, alco- 
hol, chloroform and ether. It assumes a darker color on exposure to 
light, due to partial oxidation to chrysophanic acid. 

Preparation. 

Unguentum Chrysarobini, 6 per cent, in benzoinated lard. 

Action and Uses. It is never used internally, but is a gastro- 
intestinal irritant. Large doses are irritant to the urinary tract to 
such an extent that they may cause nephritis. It is largely elimi- 
nated by the kidneys. 

Externally it is a parasiticide and irritant. 

Chrysarobin is one of the best agents we have for the treatment 
of psoriasis, but stains the skin yellow temporarily and may cause 
some dermititis. It is especially adapted where the patches are few 
and large, or to large patches in extensive cases. It may be absorbed 
from the skin sufficiently to cause internal disturbances if used too 
freely and should not be used upon the head, as the eyes and con- 
junctiva are very sensitive to it. It is prescribed as an ointment as 

Chrysarobini gr. x — lx. 
Adipis fj. 

or in suspension in collodion, 30 — 60 grains to the ounce. It may 
also be employed for ringworm when the areas are small. 

OLEUM CADINUM. OIL OF CADE 

Synonyms. Oil of Cade, Juniper Tar Oil, Oleum Juniperi 
Empyreumaticum 

This is an empyreumatic oil distilled from the wood of Juniperus 
Oxycedrus, a shrub resembling the common juniper and growing 



BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM 341 

in southern Europe. It occurs as a thick brown liquid, has a tarry 
odor and taste, is partially soluble in alcohol, completely so in 
chloroform. 

Action and Uses. These resemble those of oil of tar very 
closely. It is chiefly used as a stimulant application, in psoriasis, 
and chronic eczema. It is used in the form of an ointment as 

$ Olei Cadini 3 j-iij 

Adipis 3 j 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 

or as a shake mixture, in alcohol, in the proportion of one part of the 
oil to 1 or 2 of alcohol. 

ARNICA 

Synonym. Arnica Flowers 

This is official as the flowers of Arnica montana, a perennial of 
temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and America. It contains tan- 
nin, a volatile oil and a glucoside arnicin. 

Preparation. 

Tinctura Amicce. H. §ss — j. D. Tl^x — xxx. 

Action. Internally. Small doses taken internally slow the 
heart and raise blood pressure. Toxic doses cause a feeble pulse, 
severe gastrointestinal disturbances, prostration and dilirium or 
stupor. 

Externally. It causes redness and burning and occasionally 
severe inflammation. Although arnica has been recommended for 
internal medication in many diseases, the results of its use are much 
in doubt and there are no good grounds for its use internally. 

Externally it is a favorite remedy, employed as the tincture, as a 
stimulating application in sprains and bruises. 

* EUPHORBIUM 

The dried juice of Euphorbia resinifera. It consists of a gum 
resin. Used rarely in practice and always as an adjuvant to other 
irritants. 

* EPICARIN 

This is a condensation product of cresotinic acid, used as a para- 
siticide, same as chrysarobin, but in about twice the strength. 

BALSAMUM PERUVIANUM 

Synonyms. Peru Balsam, Balsam of Peru 

Balsam of Peru is a brownish black syrupy liquid, obtained by 
bruising the bark of Toluifera Pereirce, a large tree of Central 
* Unofficial. 



342 IRRITANTS AND COUNTERIRRITANTS 

America. It has a smoky vanilla like odor, and bitter persistent 
taste It is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and glacial acetic acid. 
Tt contains resins, cinnamic and benzoic acids and traces of vanillin. 

Doses. D. TT]v — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 

Uses. Expectorant and parasiticide. In the earlier days of 
medicine, it was used as a stimulating expectorant, but has been re- 
placed by better drugs. It is useful externally as a stimulant to 
indolent wounds and in mange. For the latter purpose it may be 
used alone or with equal parts of alcohol, or in combination with 
sulphur in an ointment as 

R Sulphuris Prsecipitati. 

Balsami Peruviani aa. 3 ij 

Olei Olivse 3 j 

Adipis, q. s ad. 3 ij 

M. Ft. Ung. 
Use as directed. 

OTHER COUNTERIRRITANTS 

Ammonia. This is an active counterirritant, especially if well 
rubbed into the parts or if the gas is confined. It is useful in lini- 
ments for sprains, bruises, swelling of the tendons, etc. It is one of 
the principal ingredients of veterinary liniments. 

Oil of Turpentine. See the turpentine group of volatile oils. 
This is particularly serviceable as a turpentine stupe in the various 
inflammations of internal organs. Turpentine is one of the most 
useful counterirritants we possess. Combined with ammonia it is- 
frequently employed as a liniment. 

Capsicum. This is occasionally used as a counterirritant. Its 
action is not so strong as that of cantharides, and causes more pain 
than mustard. It may be used in some cases where a vesicant action 
is not desired, but where mild stimulation is indicated. 

Iodine. This is well adapted for those conditions which require 
a mild but persistent action. The tincture is of service in laryn- 
gitis, arthritis, synovitis, etc. The action is persistent and renders 
the drug peculiarly adapted for the absorption of exudates. Prep- 
arations stronger than the tincture are frequently beneficial in exos- 
tosis. The following often proves -serviceable in spavins, splints, etc. 

Absorbent solution. 

R Hydrargyri Chloridi Corrosivi grs. ij 

Iodi 3 j 

Ichthyolis 3 j 

Glycerini 3 j 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 3 j 

M. et ft. solutio. 

Sig. Apply every other day with a brush. 



CROTON OIL — RED IODIDE OF MERCURY 343 

Croton oil and red iodide of mercury serve also as irritants. 
The former is generally too irritant for use upon any animal except 
cattle, the latter is very useful as a deep acting vesicant in diseases of 
the bones and tendons. 

Chloroform, camphor, and aconite are employed as rubifacients, 
practically always in the form of a liniment. 



CHAPTER XX 
CAUSTICS 

Synonym. Escharotics 

These are agents which act by causing the death of tissues. The 
action of caustics produces a stronger degree of irritation than pus- 
tulation. This action may be due to inflammatory necrosis or to 
direct chemic action consuming the tissues (sulphuric acid), or pre- 
cipitating the proteids (phenol). Tissue destroyed by chemical 
agents will always be preceded by inflammatory necrosis and chemic 
cauterization will always show three areas : the first or outside area 
of hyperemia and inflammation, inside this a layer or zone of 
necrotic tissue, and in the center a solution of cells which have been 
killed by inflammatory processes. These areas should be regarded 
in the light of different successive stages of the same action, and by 
proper dilution, the first or second stages may be produced without 
the succeeding ones. 

Some of the caustics, such as arsenic, mercury, the stronger alka- 
lies, acids and bromine, act by forming soluble compounds with the 
proteids of the tissues, while others, as most of the metallic salts, 
saline and organic irritants, kill the cells by precipitation of their 
proteids. If the corrosion leads to a loss of tissue, an inflammatory 
exudate will be thrown upon the surface, where it will coagulate. 
This exudate plus the products of the action of the irritant upon it 
and upon the cells, form the scab or eschar. This will vary in form 
with the nature of the chemical products forming it. Thus if the 
irritant exerts a solvent action on proteids, as in the case of the 
alkalies, the scab will be liquid, while if the product formed by the 
agent upon the proteids is insoluble, as in the case of metallic salts, 
the scab will be hard. This fact is very important because it deter- 
mines the depth of the action of the irritant. If the scab is soft the 
irritant will penetrate it. Consequently the action cannot be con- 
trolled and will spread and extend deeply. On the other hand, if the 
scab is insoluble or hard it prevents deep penetration and the action 
can be easily controlled or confined to the desired areas. This ex- 
plains why the strong alkalies are not practical for purposes of irri- 
tation, caustic action, etc., and why the metallic salts are to be pre- 
ferred for these actions. 

Caustics produce the same action upon the mucosa of the intes- 
tinal tract if swallowed as upon the skin. The early symptoms begin 



USES OF CAUSTICS 345 

in the mouth with a burning sensation and pain followed by dyspha- 
gia and loss of tissue. The appearance of the mucosa of the mouth 
is important in cases of poisoning, because it is an aid in the diag- 
nosis of the nature of the irritant. Alkalies form a transparent 
swelling of the mucosa, which is soon detached, leaving a scarlet 
colored inflamed area beneath. Corrosives, which form a precipi- 
tate with the tissues produce a grayish-white, opaque stain, which 
persists in the case of the mineral poisons. Strong acids change 
the hemoglobin of the neighboring parts to dark acid hematin, with 
a dark or brown stain. Nitric acid is an exception. This forms a 
yellow stain which differs from that of picric acid by being changed 
to an orange color by alkalies, while the picric acid stain remains 
unchanged. 

The corrosion extends down the esophagus to the stomach and 
intestines. Gastroenteritis is consequently produced and is shown 
by the usual symptoms. The vomitus and feces are more or less 
bloody and in case of the strong acids, the vomitus is often black on 
account of the acid hematin. This is the so-called " coffee grounds 
vomitus." Pain is usually very severe after corrosives. Death 
usually takes place in from 24 to 48 hours, occasionally sooner on 
account of the shock. The temperature will be elevated if absorption 
occurs, subnormal, if shock or collapse is produced. 

Autopsy. Corrosion or destruction will be found particularly 
in the upper part of the digestive tract, with alkalies, acids, etc., but 
in the large intestines from metals. If the action has stopped short 
of corrosion there will be hyperemia and extravasation of blood. 
The neighboring abdominal organs may be hyperemic. 

Treatment of Poisoning. First dilute' the irritant as its action 
depends upon its concentration. Allow plenty of water or force 
water upon the animal. If corrosion has started it is dangerous to 
use the stomach tube on account of the liability of puncturing the 
stomach. Administer demulcents very freely ; mucilage, boiled 
starch or preteids (white of egg, milk). Administer the chemic 
antidotes, alkalies for acids and acids for alkalies. Treat the pain 
and other symptoms as they arise. 

Uses. The caustics are occasionally used for counterirritation, 
but more often for the removal of tissue as in : 

1. Bites of venomous animals, snakes, dogs. 

2. Eemoval of pathological tissue : warts, tumors, etc. 

3. Indolent granulations. 

The most important caustics are : 

Hot iron, electricity. 

Chemic agents. 

Nitric acid on glass rod, for warts, etc. 

Trichloracetic acid, on cotton : warts, etc. 

Chromium trioxide fused on a probe. 



346 CAUSTICS 

Phenol : infected tissues. 

Argenti Nitras, stick : indolent granulations. 

Zinci Chloridum, solution: indolent granulations. 

Cupri Sulphas, crystals : ulcers of conjunctivitis, etc. 

Hydrargyri Nitras. 

Plurnbi Nitras. 

Potassii Hydras, stick : prevent growth of horn. 

Calx, paste. 

Potassa cum Calce, paste. 

Sodii Hydras, stick as in case of caustic potash. 

These drugs all have other more important group action and are 
discussed elsewhere. 

Depilatories. These are agents used to remove hair. The most 
important are barium sulphide and calcium hydrate. 



CHAPTEK XXI 
ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 

This group is composed of the alkaline salts of potassium, 
sodium, lithium and certain salts of the alkaline earths, calcium 
and magnesium. The potassium, sodium and lithium ions are 
absorbed readily from the gastro-intestinal tract and exert a sys- 
temic action following the local action in the stomach. On the 
other hand, the magnesium and calcium ions are not readily ab- 
sorbed and exert their action upon the intestines. The magnesium 
salts tend toward purgation and the calcium toward constipation. 

The alkalies may be divided into : 

1. Caustics. These are the hydroxides of potassium, so- 
dium, and the oxide of calcium. They are all strong irritants, 
even in weak solution. The caustic action is due to their power of 
abstracting water from the tissues, saponifying fats, and dissolving 
albumen. This action has been discussed under the head of 
escharotics, p. 344. 

2. Those of Milder Action. These are the carbonates and bi- 
carbonates of potassium, sodium and lithium, and the hydroxides and 
carbonates of magnesium and calcium. 

GROUP ACTION 

Antagonists and Incompatibles. Alkalies and their car- 
bonates are incompatible with acids and metallic salts. Ammonium 
carbonate is incompatible with acid salts and lime water. 

External and Local Action. The hydrates of sodium and 
potassium are rubifacient and caustic according to concentration. 
Moderate solutions irritate the skin, soften and dissolve the epider- 
mis and horny tissues. The caustic action has been discussed under 
the head of escharotics, which see p. 344. The carbonates have a 
similar but weaker action. The bicarbonates, citrates, acetates and 
bitartrates possess no local action ; the ammonium preparations do 
not correspond with the actions of the above, they penetrate the outer 
layers of the skin and cause an effusion of serum with vesication and 
even pustulation if the vapor is confined and in concentration. 

Digestive System. Small doses are thought to promote the 
secretion of gastric juice. Large doses neutralize the free hydro- 
chloric acid in the stomach and by rendering the chyme neutral or 

347 



348 ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 

alkaline, interfere with the secretions from the pancreas, liver, and 
intestines and thereby hinder digestion. 

Circulatory System. These agents, by lessening the acidity of 
the gastric juice, enter the circulation and increase the alkalinity of 
the blood. The bicarbonate taken in large doses upon an empty 
stomach enters the blood unchanged, where by decomposing the neu- 
tral sodium phosphate present, it forms the acid phosphate, thus 
increasing the acidity of the blood and urine. 

Uses. They are used as antacids, laxatives, antidotes to acid 
poisons and as astringents. 

THE GROUP IN DETAIL 
POTASSIUM 

The principal effects produced by the potassium ion are depres- 
sion of the central nervous system and all kinds of muscle including 
the heart. 

The entire central nervous system is affected. The reflexes are 
first depressed, then the medulla. The heart is said to be stimulated 
by small doses, fatigued or weakened by medium doses, and para- 
lyzed by large ones. This is due to direct depression of the heart 
muscle. In poisoning, the heart ceases before respirations stop ; the 
muscles are weakened and their irritability lessened. The above 
effects are said to be obtained only after intravenous doses according 
to some writers, while others insist that they may be caused by large 
doses administered subcutaneously or per os. Animals daily take in 
large amounts with their food, so that those administered as medi- 
cine may be considered as inert. The difficulty in securing toxic 
action from potassium salts is due to their rapid excretion. The 
salts of potash are never used in medicine for the action of the 
potassium ion, since its action on the heart cannot be utilized. 

POTASSII HYDROXIDUM 

Synonyms. Potassium Hydroxide, Caustic Potash, Potassium 

Hydrate 

Occurs as dry, white translucent pencils or fused masses, odorless 
or having a feeble odor of lye, and having a very acrid and caustic 
taste. Deliquescent in air, soluble in 0.9 part of water, 3 of alcohol, 
and 2.5 of glycerin. 

Liquor Potassii — 5 per cent, of potassium hydroxide in water. 

Doses. Not often used internally. 

Potassii cum Calce. Potassium with lime, Vienna Paste. 
Greyish white deliquescent powder, containing about equal parts of 
potassium hydroxide and calcium oxide. 



POTASSII CHLORAS — POTASSIUM CHLORATE 349 

POTASSII CARBONAS 

Synonyms. Potassium Carbonate, Sal Tartar, Salts of Tartar 

White granular, odorless crystals, slightly alkaline, saline taste, 
permanent in air, soluble in 3.2 parts of water, almost insoluble in 
alcohol. 

Doses. H. and C. oss — j; 2. — 4. Dog, gr. v — xx; 0.3 — 1.3. 

Action and Uses. The action and uses have been discussed 
previously. The hydroxide may be used as a strong caustic to 
prevent the growth of horn and as an escharotic. Potassium with 
lime is an escharotic; these preparations are not much used inter- 
nally. Potassium carbonate is too irritant for internal medication 
but is added to ointments to aid their penetration by dissolving the 
grease and sebaceous matter of the skin. 

POTASSII CHLORAS — POTASSIUM CHLORATE 

This is not really an alkaline salt of potash but on account of 
difficulty in grouping will be discussed in this place. It occurs in 
the form of colorless, crystalline plates, odorless and of a cooling, 
saline taste. It is soluble in 11.5 parts of water, almost insoluble 
in alcohol. Great care should be used in handling it, as it is liable 
to explode when heated or subjected to concussion, or trituration with 
organic substances, sulphur, sulphides, hypophosphates or other 
easily oxidizable substances. 

Doses. H. and C. 5ss — j ; 2. — 4. Dog, gr. v — xx; 0.3 — 1.3. 

Preparation. 

Trochisci Potassii Cliloratis, each about 2/4 grains. 

Action. Applied to mucous membranes it is stimulant or irri- 
tant according to concentration. Taken internally, contrary to pre- 
vious belief, it does not yield oxygen but most of it passes out of 
the body unchanged. The larger proportion is eliminated by the 
kidneys, but some is also excreted by the saliva, milk and tears. The 
only symptom shown after moderate doses, is an increase in the 
amount of urine. Concentrated solutions, even of therapeutic doses 
may irritate the stomach and cause nausea and vomiting. Tor many 
years the drug was not believed to be toxic but Jacobi in 1861, 
pointed out the dangers resulting from large doses of the drug. 

Symptoms of Poisoning. The symptoms of poisoning by 
potassium chlorate are the result of the action of the drug upon the 
heart, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys and blood. Both radicles or 
ions must be considered; through its potassium ion it depresses the 



350 ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 

circulation, and through its acid ion, irritates the stomach, intes- 
tines and kidneys, and changes the hemoglobin of the blood to methe- 
moglobin. The first symptoms of poisoning are abdominal pain, 
thirst, vomiting and purging. Cyanosis is always present and is 
accompanied by asphyxia and the usual symptoms of heart depres- 
sion. The urine is scanty, high colored, contains albumen and pig- 
mented tube casts, together with the residue of red cells. 

Uses. It is an excellent application in inflammatory affections 
of the throat and mouth, as in pharyngitis and various forms of 
stomatitis, and may be used in the strength of 10 to 20 grains to one 
ounce of water for this purpose. In acute pharyngitis it is fre- 
quently useful to add tannic acid or some preparation of tannin to 
the solution. 

It is a specific for ulcerous stomatitis in man, and should be 
given internally as well as applied externally. For this purpose it 
can be given in doses of from 3 to 5 grains, well diluted with water, 
every two hours until the symptoms begin to subside, then less fre- 
quently. 

SODIUM 

The action of the sodium ion is not pronounced. Animals take 
in large amounts with their food and any excess over the amount 
required is promptly eliminated. Sollman says, " But when they 
are retained, these ions (CI and Na) produce only small actions, 
for the amounts normally present are so large that the artificial in- 
troduction of ordinary amounts will not increase their ratio to any 
considerable extent." 

Sodium salts are less depressant to the circulatory, muscular and 
nervous systems and less irritant to the gastrointestinal tract than 
the corresponding salts of potash. 

SODII HYDROXIDUM — SODIUM HYDRATE 

Synonyms. Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda 

Sodium hydrate occurs in white translucent pencils or fused 
masses, deliquescent, odorless, acrid caustic taste, and of an intensely 
alkaline reaction. It is soluble in water and alcohol. 

Preparation. 

Liquor Sodii Hydroxidi — 5 per cent. 

These agents resemble the corresponding preparations of potas- 
sium and are used for the same purposes as these drugs. They 
are not used internally. 



SODII BICARBONAS — SODIUM BICARBONATE 351 

* SODII CARBONAS — SODIUM CARBONATE 

Synonyms. Washing Soda, Sal Soda 
Preparations. 

*Sodii Carbonas Exsiccatus — Dried Sodium Carbonate. 
Doses. H. oij — vj ; 8. — 25. I), gr. v — xx; 0.3 — 1.3. 

Sodii Carbonas Monohydratus — Monohydrated Sodium Car- 
bonate. Doses. Same as for the dried carbonate. 

Sodium carbonate occurs in colorless crystals ; the dried car- 
bonate and monohydrated carbonate as white powders. They are all 
soluble in water and strongly alkaline. They are antacid but rarely 
used in medicine. The monohydrated carbonate is specified in the 
manufacture of glycerin suppositories. 

SODII BICARBONAS — SODIUM BICARBONATE 

Synonym. Baking Soda. 

Sodium bicarbonate occurs as a white, opaque, odorless powder, 
having a cooling and faintly alkaline taste. It is soluble in 10 parts 
of water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. H. and C. §ss — ij ; 15. — 60. Sh. and Sw. oj — iv; 
4.— 15. D. gr. v— xx; 0.3—1.3. 

External Action. Sodium bicarbonate in solution is a solvent 
for dried exudates in mange, eczema, etc. It is sedative to mucous 
membranes and is a solvent for mucus. In the form of a paste or in 
solution it is a sedative application for burns, erythema, insect stings 
and bites. 

Gastrointestinal Tract. Sodium, bicarbonate neutralizes gas- 
tric acidity, whether this is normal or pathological, and dissolves 
mucus. In neutralizing acids CO 2 is liberated ; this is sedative to 
the part and a stimulant to peristalsis. Thus it relieves pain and 
aids in the expulsion of gas. 

It inhibits salivary, gastric and pancreatic secretion, renders the 
chyme neutral or alkaline and interferes with digestion. The action 
of an alkali upon the stomach varies somewhat with the contents of 
the stomach and time of administration. When given to an empty 
stomach sodium bicarbonate simply dissolves the mucus and is 
absorbed into the blood as the bicarbonate, increasing the alkalinity 
of it. When administered during digestion it interferes with diges- 
tion and acts as mentioned above. In this case the C0 2 is 
liberated and the sodium is absorbed as the chloride. 

Uses. Externally to relieve minor burns, and to soften or dis- 
* Unofficial. 



352 ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 

solve exudates ; it may be used as a powder or made up into a paste 
as an application to burns, erythema, bites and stings of insects, etc. 
To dissolve scabs and exudates it should be used in solution. 

Internally. Antacid. It is particularly of service in overcom- 
ing gastric and intestinal indigestion due to hyperacidity or flatu- 
lence. It does not remove the cause, so should always be prescribed 
with other preparations, such as carminatives, purgatives, etc. It is 
often prescribed for dogs along with bismuth, salol or beta naphthol, 
or to horses with gentian and nux vomica. It is also frequently 
prescribed with calomel as it appears to do away with the disagree- 
able symptoms following the administration of this agent. 

Acidosis. In this case it should be given preferably before meals 
when the stomach is not acid, but it has an indirect action upon the 
blood and urine no matter how used. In severe acidosis as in de- 
layed chloroform poison it has been given in large doses by mouth 
and rectum with only occasional favorable results. The reason for 
this has not been determined, although it has been attributed to the 
fact that in diabetes the blood does not become acid while in acidosis 
due to mineral acids the blood is acid. 

In Rheumatism. It should be given until the urine is alkaline. 
It is of no use in gout. 

SODIUM CHLORIDE. SALT 

Synonyms. Common or Table Salt, Muriate of Soda, Sal 

Commune 

Source. Mined in the native state, or made from the evapor- 
ation of brine, spring or sea water. 

Properties. These are well known. Sodium chloride is freely 
soluble in water and slightly in alcohol. 

Preparations. 

Liquor Sodii Chloridi Physiologicus — Physiological Salt 
Solution, normal salt solution — 0.85 per cent, in distilled 
water. 

Doses. Sodii Chloridum, Cathartic. Cow, lb. ss — j ; 250 — 
500. Sheep, 5j— ij ; 30.— 60. 

External Action. Applied to the skin salt causes some irrita- 
tion because it abstracts water from the cells. This irritant action 
is followed by a slight local anesthesia. It is a mild antiseptic and 
produces its action by withdrawing fluid from the bacteria. 

Internal Action. Salt is an essential constituent of food since 
it is necessary to form the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice and 
is abundant in the blood plasma. If animals are fed upon food 
which is free from salt they die in a short time. Meats contain a 
considerable amount of salt, but vegetables do not and consequently 



SODIUM CHLORIDE— SALT 353 

herbivorous animals will always seek for it. This accounts for 
the numerous salt licks of history. Vegetable food not only does not 
contain salt but robs the body of it in the following manner: The 
potassium phosphate present in large amounts in vegetable food, 
reacts in the blood with JSTaCl to form KC1 and Sodium phosphate. 
Both are rapidly excreted and consequently the salt is lost. This loss 
could not take place without chemical action because the body holds 
tenaciously to salt when only the normal amounts are present. 

Internally salt may cause gastroenteritis and death if enormous 
doses are used. The irritation is well marked in the mouth, esoph- 
agus, and stomach, so that emesis takes place in vomiting animals. 
Barlow states that in China, the drinking of a pint or more of a 
saturated solution in water, is a common method of suicide. The 
irritant action is due to the withdrawal of water from the tissues. It 
may serve as a mild cathartic for ruminants but is usually combined 
with epsom or Glauber's salts for this purpose. Its purgative action 
may be due in a way at least to the great thirst it creates, so that the 
animal consumes large quantities of water, which flushes out the 
system generally. The action of salt is due entirely to mechanical 
means or to osmosis and is common to all the salts of the alkalies. 
Small doses may aid digestion. 

Uses. Externally — Solutions of salt, ammonium chloride and 
saltpeter, one ounce of each to the quart of water may serve as a 
refrigerant but is not to be preferred to applications of cold water or 
ice. 

Internally — Solutions of salt in the strength of physiological 
salt solution 0.85 per cent, used intravenously are very effective in 
shock which is due to loss of large quantities of blood or to aid in 
maintaining blood pressure in shock during or following operations. 
Physiological salt solution may be of great benefit when injected sub- 
cutaneously (hypodermoclysis) or per rectum (proctoclysis). Tap 
water is to be preferred to distilled water in making physiological 
salt solution, on account of its calcium salts, which seem to have a 
beneficial action and are normally present in the blood. 

2. Antidote to poisoning by silver nitrate. Salt precipitates the 
silver in the form of the insoluble chloride. 

3. Emetic for dogs. One or two drams of salt to the cup of 
tepid water, either administered alone or combined with two ounces 
of mustard may serve as an emetic in cases of emergency. 

4. Salt may advantageously be added to the usual saline purge 
for ruminants, because it induces the consumption of large quantities 
of water, which in itself assists in the action of salines. 

5. Enema for oxyures or pin worms. It should be made into a 
solution in the proportion of one-half to one ounce of salt in a pint 
of water and injected into the previously emptied rectum. 



354 ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 



SODII PHOSPHAS — SODIUM PHOSPHATE 

Sodium phosphate occurs as large colorless, monoclinic prisms, 
odorless, and possessing a cool saline taste. It gradually effloresces 
in dry air and loses 5 molecules of water of crystallization. (One 
gram dissolves in 2.7 mils of water; insoluble in alcohol.) 

Doses. Same as for the sulphate. 

Action and Uses. The action is the same as that of the sul- 
phate but milder. It is indicated in jaundice due to duodenitis and 
as a laxative for foals and calves. It has been recommended as a 
source of phosphorus in rickets, but the calcium salt is to be pre- 
ferred. 

Sodium borate and perborate are discussed under antiseptics. 

LITHIUM 

Lithium has a potassium-like action upon the heart and voluntary 
muscles, but to a lesser degree. Large doses cause nausea, vomiting, 
diarrhea and gastroenteritis, followed by emaciation and death. 
This results whether the drug is administered per os or hypoder- 
mically; in the latter case through its elimination by the intestines. 
It is excreted principally by the kidneys, but to a smaller extent by 
the saliva, stomach and bowels. It increases the amount of urine 
by its salt action and does not irritate the kidneys. Like the other 
fixed alkalies, lithium salts render the urine alkaline. Materia 
Medica of lithium salts is given under diuretics, p. 298. 

CALCIUM 

Calcium salts are present in the bone and hard parts of the body 
and also in the blood and soft tissues. It is a necessary constituent 
of all protoplasm and is necessary for the action of certain ferments. 

Action. Bones. When calcium salts are withheld from the 
food of growing animals, symptoms resembling rachitis and osteomal- 
acia are seen, but differ in calcium starvation from those of the 
previously mentioned diseases, because although little bone is formed 
it contains the normal proportion of calcium. This has led to the 
use of calcium in the treatment of these diseases, but it appears that 
in these conditions there is an inability to use what calcium is in 
the food and many cases do not respond to the administration of 
calcium. Most of the calcium is taken into the body in drinking 
water and vegetables. Animal matter, with the exception of bones, 
contains but little calcium. 

Specific Action. Calcium has a specific action on all forms of 
muscle similar but weaker than barium. It increases the contrac- 



CRETA PREP ARATA — PREPARED CHALK 355 

tion and prolongs the period of relaxation of muscle, constricts the 
bloodvessels and increases the rhythm and force of the heart beat. 
These effects are antagonized by potassium and magnesium and vice 
versa. 

One of the most important specific actions of calcium is its power 
to retard or prevent inflammation. For instance, a calcium salt in- 
jected subcutaneously will prevent the reaction from the application 
of mustard, probably on account of a lessened permeability of the 
bloodvessels, formal dogs are resistant to the experimental pro- 
duction of moist eczema, but if the calcium in the circulation is pre- 
cipitated by the injection of oxalates, the resistance is reduced. 
This has suggested the use of calcium in the treatment of moist 
eczema and urticaria and to prevent rashes following the use of 
serum. It is not known how this action is brought about. 

Nervous System. Calcium salts favor the normal reaction of 
nerve tissue. Gushing demonstrated that the sensitiveness of motor 
nerve endings which have been depressed by normal saline, regain 
their sensitiveness by perfusion of normal amounts of calcium in the 
saline solution. 

Absorption and Elimination. Calcium salts are absorbed to 
a small extent from the stomach and intestines. Absorption is facili- 
tated by the presence of fats which form calcium soaps. Most of 
the absorbed salt is excreted into the intestine but some escapes by 
the urine. The percentage eliminated by the urine is increased dur- 
ing calcium starvation and is more during rest than in exercise. The 
percentage in the blood is not influenced by oral doses to normal ani- 
mals. 

CALCIUM 

Metallic calcium is not used in medicine. 

CRETA PREP ARATA — PREPARED CHALK 

Synonym. Drop Chalk 

Prepared chalk is a white amorphous powder, often moulded into 
cones, odorless, tasteless, permanent in the air, almost insoluble in 
water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Incompatibilities — Acids and sulphates. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Creta Preparata. H. §j — ij ; 30. — 60. D. gr. x — 3j ; 

0.65—4.0. 
Pulvis Creta? Compositus. Compound Chalk Powder, chalk 

30, Acacia 20, sugar of milk 50. Dose. Same as for the 

above. 
Mistura Cretce. Chalk Mixture. Compound chalk powder 



356 ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 

200, Cinnamon water 400, water to make 1000. Dose. 
Dog, Si— ij; 80.— 60.0. 

Calcii Carbonas Prcecipitatus. Precipitated Calcium Car- 
bonate. Precipitated chalk. 

Precipitated chalk occurs as a fine white odorless and tasteless 
powder. It is permanent in air, sparingly soluble in water, insolu- 
ble in alcohol. 

Doses. H. %]— ij ; 30.0—60.0. Dog, gr. x— lx; 0.65—4. 

Action and Uses. Externally and locally chalk is a desiccant, 
feeble astringent and protective. 

Internally. Since chalk is not easily dissolved, it is a very 
feeble and slow acting antacid, but is nevertheless useful when a 
slow, continuous action is desired. It is protective to the gastro- 
intestinal mucous membrane and resembles the action of the bismuth 
salts in mechanically coating and protecting the irritated or inflamed 
mucous membrane. On account of its cohesive tendency, prepared 
chalk is to be preferred to the precipitated variety for internal use. 
Chalk is less astringent and antiseptic than the various salts of bis- 
muth, so that these salts are preferred for use in small animal prac- 
tice. 

Administration. Chalk may be administered to horses and 
cattle as a powder, in pill, capsule, or shake mixture in mucilage. 
One of the official preparations is preferred for dogs. 

CALX — LIME 

Synonyms. Burned Lime, Quick Lime 
Lime occurs as hard white or grayish masses, which in contact 
with air gradually draw moisture and C0 2 , and fall down as a 
white powder. Lime is odorless, of a caustic taste, alkaline reaction, 
soluble in 750 parts of water, insoluble in alcohol. 
Preparations. 

Liquor Calcis. Lime water. This is a saturated aqueous 
solution of lime prepared by dissolving lime in water. 
The chlorides are removed by first slaking the lime with a 
small amount of water, which is discarded. More water 
is then added. Doses. H. §iv — vj ; 120. — 180. Dog, 
3j— viij ; 4.0—30.0. 

*Syrupus Calcis. Syrup of lime. Lime 65, sugar 400, 
water to make 1000. Doses. Dog, 5ss — j ; 2 — 4. 

Linimentum Calcis. Carron Oil. Lime water and linseed 
oil, equal parts. 

Calcii Hydras. Slaked Lime. Not used internally. 

* Unofficial. 



BARII CHLORIDUM — BARIUM CHLORIDE 357 

Action. Externally and locally. Lime is irritant and caustic, 
but less so than sodium and potassium hydrates. The hydrate is less 
caustic than lime. 

Internally. Lime is used only in the form of some of its official 
preparations. Its action is due to the hydroxyl ion instead of the 
calcium. In solution it is a sedative, antacid, slightly astringent, 
and like other alkalies assists in the solution of mucus. 

Uses. Externally. Lime is commonly used as a disinfectant 
and deodorant for cess polls, where a cheap agent is required. It 
produces its action by combining with water to form slaked lime. 
Ordinary whitewash is not antiseptic in the strict sense of the word, 
although it may cover up infection, but may be made antiseptic by 
the addition of sufficient quantities of crude phenol or other disin- 
fectant. 

Slaked lime may be used as an antiseptic, desiccant, and absor- 
bent powder for wounds either when used alone or in combination 
with equal parts of charcoal. Enemata of lime water are often 
serviceable for the removal of oxyures or pin worms. 

Carron oil is a very good dressing for superficial burns, but 
should be rendered antiseptic with phenol or other antiseptic. It 
should be kept upon the burned surface by means of soft cloths which 
have been saturated with it. 

Internally. Lime water is sedative to the stomach and will 
often relieve the vomiting of gastritis of dogs and cats. It is often 
mixed with the milk for animals which are brought up artificially 
to dilute it and to diminish the size of the curds formed in the 
stomach. Lime water and carron oil often prove of service in heaves 
of horses. The former may be sprinkled upon hay or given in water 
while the latter may be given upon grain. Carron oil is a useful 
laxative for small or young animals. 

CALCII SULPHAS EXSICCATUS 

Synonyms. Plaster Paris, Dried Calcium Sulphate 

Plaster of Paris is used only in the preparation of fixation band- 
ages. It is not used internally. 

BARIUM 

Metallic barium is not used in medicine. 

BARII CHLORIDUM — BARIUM CHLORIDE 

Barium chloride occurs in colorless glistening rhombic plates ; 
bitter and disagreeable taste; permanent in air; soluble in 2.5 parts 
of water. 



358 



ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 



Dose. H. 5ij — iv; 8. 
— 1. 



-15. Intravenously, gr. vij — xv; 0.5 



Action and Uses. Barium is a strong irritant, having a spe- 
cial affinity for all forms of muscle. As soon as a muscle comes 
into contact with barium it goes into tonic contraction. When taken 
per os it causes colicky pains, nausea, vomiting and increases peri- 
stalsis due to the action of the drug upon the muscle of the intestines. 
Death is caused by central nervous paralysis and is preceded by 
strong tonic and clonic convulsions. Sodium sulphate is said to be 
the best antidote. 

Muscle. Barium has an action on voluntary muscle like that 
of veratrine. Plain muscle generally goes into contraction. The 
muscle of the intestines contracts in rings or bands which relax 




Fig. 21. 
Blood pressure tracing. Horse. Normal pressure tracing at the left. Effect 
of Barium Chloride at the right. The vertical line above the tracing indi- 
cates the point at which the injection was made. (Tracing made by Dr. 
P. A. Fish.) 

slowly and are followed by others. Other plain muscles also con- 
tract. The bloodvessels are constricted causing a great and per- 
sistent increase in blood pressure. Cardiac muscle is affected in the 
same manner as other muscle. Barium resembles the action of a 
digitalis on the heart but differs from digitalis in increasing the 
rate. 

Therapeutics. The only indication for the use of barium is as 
a purgative for the horse. See purgatives, p. 257. Its digitalis- 
like action or action on the heart cannot be utilized on account 
of its dangerous side actions. Barium should not be administered 
subcutaneously because it will cause abscess at the site of injection. 



MAGNESII OXIDUM PONDEROSUM 359 

MAGNESIUM 

When salts of magnesium are taken or administered per os, they 
serve as purgatives because they are absorbed with difficulty. The 
purgative action has been discussed under the salines. If the salts 
are injected intravenously or subcutaneously in sufficient amounts 
they depress the nervous system and cause complete narcosis and 
relaxation of the muscles. This action is now being utilized in the 
treatment of tetanus with reported success. A complete and rapid 
recovery from the action of magnesium salts may be brought about 
by the intravenous injection of calcium. 

MAGNESII CARBONAS — MAGNESIUM CARBONATE 

Magnesium carbonate occurs as light, white, friable masses 
(Heavy magnesia [B. P.]) or light white powder (Light magnesia 
B. P.). It is odorless, of a slightly earthy taste, permanent in air, 
almost insoluble in water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. Foals and Calves 5 j — ij ; 4.0 — 8.0. Dogs gr. v — ix ; 
0.3—4. 

MAGNESIUM OXIDUM — MAGNESIUM OXIDE 

Synonyms. — Magnesia, Light Magnesia, Calcined Magnesia, Burnt 

Magnesia 

Magnesium carbonate occurs as a white, very light, odorless 
powder, having an earthy taste, almost insoluble in water, insoluble 
in alcohol, but soluble in dilute acids. One part of the salt on be- 
ing mixed with 15 parts of water and allowed to stand for half an 
hour, hydrates and forms a gelatinous mass. 
Doses. The same as for the carbonate. 

MAGNESII OXIDUM PONDEROSUM — HEAVY MAGNESIUM 

OXIDE 

Synonyms. Heavy Magnesia, Heavy Calcined Magnesia 

Heavy magnesia is a white, dense, fine powder differing from 
the light variety only in not forming a gelatinous mass with water. 

Doses. The same as for the carbonate. 

Preparations of Magnesia. * Pulvis Rhei Compositus (65 
per cent). 

Ferri Hydroxidum cum Magnesii Oxido. 
Magma Magnesii. Milk of magnesia. 

Action and Uses of Magnesia. The salts of magnesium are 
weak alkalies without caustic action. They are partly converted 

* Unofficial. 



360 ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 

into soluble salts in the stomach and exert a purgative action which 
has been discussed previously. Magnesia is often useful in indi- 
gestion of young animals with tympany and diarrhea. It may 
be given in the form of the compound rhubarb powder or with 
equal parts of rhubarb and magnesia and half as much ginger. Be- 
sides its antacid and laxative action, magnesium enters into the well 
known arsenic antidote — Ferri Hydroxidum cum Magnesii Oxido. 
Magnesium should not be given over a long period of time as it is 
said to be liable to cause intestinal concretions. 

AMMONIA AND AMMONIUM 

The action of ammonium and its salts differs exceedingly from 
the previously discussed alkalies. Externally the solutions of am- 
monia and the gas are very irritant but they are not so corrosive as 
the hydrates of the other alkalies. 

The characteristic action of the ammonium ion when given sub- 
cutaneously or intratracheally is stimulation of the central nervous 
system which is followed by depression after large doses. Keflex 
irritability is increased and convulsions may take place. The heart 
and respirations are stimulated reflexly due to the irritant action of 
the drug. The ammonium ion also increases the secretions, especially 
the saliva, mucus and sweat. The diaphoretic action is believed to 
be of central origin while the action on saliva and mucus may be ac- 
counted for by: 1. Reflex stimulation of the mucosae due to irrita- 
tion of the mucous membrane of the mouth. This action is impor- 
tant on account of the fact that the salts of ammonium are some- 
what eliminated by the saliva into the mouth and thus produce their 
local action a second time. 2. Direct stimulation of the secretory 
center. 

AMMONIA 

This is a colorless gas, very pungent in odor, and possessing an 
acrid taste. It is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of 
coal gas. It is only used in solution. 

Preparations. 

Aqua Ammonias. Ammonia Water. 

Ammonia water is a solution containing not less than 9.5 per 
cent, nor more than 10.5 per cent, of ammonia in water. 

Doses. H. 5 j— iv; 4 — 16. D. n\ ij— xv; 0.13—1. 

Aqua Ammonice Fortior. Stronger Ammonia Water. 

Stronger ammonia water is an aqueous solution of ammonia 
which should contain not less than 27 nor more than 29 per cent. 
of ammonia. 



AMMONIA 361 

Doses. One half those of Aqua Ammonise. 
* Spiritus Ammoniw. Spirits of Ammonia. 

Spirits of ammonia is an alcoholic solution containing 10 per 
cent, of ammonia. 

Spiritus Ammoniw Aromaticus. Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia 
consists of ammonia water 90 mils, ammonium carbonate 34 grams, 
alcohol 700 mils, essential oils and water to make 1000 mils. 

Doses. H. I ss— iij ; 15.— 90. D. TT\. v— lx; 0.3—4. 

Linimentum Ammoniw, Ammonia Liniment. Ammonia water 
250, sesame oil 750. 

External Action. Ammonia is a powerful irritant to the skin 
but differs from the fixed alkalies in not being corrosive or per- 
sistent in action. Furthermore it does not dissolve the epidermis 
but passes through it and forms blisters. On account of this action 
it is often used as a counterirritant. 

Digestive System. Like other alkalies, ammonia serves to 
neutralize any free acid that may be in the stomach and in dilute 
solution is carminative. 

Circulatory System. Ammonia produces a transient elevation 
of blood pressure when inhaled or administered per os due entirely 
to reflex stimulation of the heart and vasomotor center through irri- 
tation of the gastric or nasal mucous membranes. The blood pres- 
sure is also raised if the drug is injected subcutaneously in moderate 
doses but in this case there is probably some direct action upon the 
vasomotor center as well as reflex action. 

Sometimes a temporary slowing of the heart is observed due to 
stimulation of the vagus center. 

Respiratory System. Moderate doses increase the depth and 
volume of the respirations by reflex stimulation of the respiratory 
center. This action is very marked when the drug is inhaled. 

Excretion. Ammonia undergoes very rapid changes in the 
body and is consequently very transient in action. It differs from 
the fixed alkalies in not adding to the alkalinity of the tissues because 
it is transformed into urea soon after its absorption and is eliminated 
as such. 

Therapeutics. Ammonia is employed as a rapid acting cardiac 
and respiratory stimulant, as an antacid, carminative and counter- 
irritant. 

It is a valuable stimulant in shock and other sudden heart or 
respiratory failures. It may be given by inhalation, hypodermatic 
injection, intratracheally or per os. 

It is very useful as an antacid and carminative in various forms 

* Unofficial. 



362 ALKALIES AND ALKALINE EARTHS 

of indigestions and colic. It is usually administered in the form of 
aromatic spirits of ammonia well diluted for this action. 

It is a valuable rubifacient for sprains, rheumatism, etc., and 
enters into many liniments used for this purpose. 

AMMONII CARBONAS — AMMONIUM CARBONATE 

Carbonate of ammonia occurs in the form of white, transparent 
crystalline masses, having an extremely pungent odor and acrid 
taste. Upon exposure to air it breaks up into a white powder, bi- 
carbonate of ammonium. Only translucent pieces should be used. 
Ammonium carbonate may also be purchased in cubes which are 
said to keep much better than the other forms. It is soluble in water. 

Doses. H. 5 ijss — vj ; 10. — 25. D. gr. iij — xv ; 0.2 — 1. 

Ammonium carbonate acts similarly to ammonia and may be 
used in the same conditions internally. It stimulates the secretion 
of the gastric juice, increases the blood supply to the stomach and 
is an antacid. It is therefore a carminative, stomachic, and antacid 
in addition to being a reflex circulatory and respiratory stimulant. 
It is eliminated by the mucosae generally and particularly by that of 
the respiratory tract and is consequently a stimulating expectorant. 
Furthermore on account of its alkaline action it aids in liquefying 
the secretions and assists in their removal. 

SPIRITUS AMMONIiE AROMATICUS 

The ingredients of this preparation have been given previously. 
It resembles ammonium carbonate in action although the alcohol and 
oils add somewhat to its effects. 

Therapeutics. The uses of these two preparations are in gen- 
eral the same as for other preparations of ammonium. The car- 
bonate is more useful as an expectorant while the carbonate or aro- 
matic spirits of ammonia is more serviceable as a carminative than 
ammonia water. Ammonium carbonate is a valuable respiratory 
and circulatory stimulant and may be given in capsules or as the 
aromatic spirits of ammonia. Reek recommends it in the treat- 
ment of colic. He directs that one ounce of ammonium carbonate 
and one ounce of powdered nux vomica be given in four capsules to 
a large horse. The ammonium salt may be repeated if the case de- 
mands it. Either of these preparations are valuable carminatives in 
various indigestions. 

Carbonate of ammonia is an emetic and expectorant. Tor the 
latter purpose it is especially useful in the secondary stage of dis- 
eases of the respiratory tract. 

Administration. The carbonate should be given in pill, cap- 



SOLUTION OF AMMONIUM ACETATE 363 

sule, in solution in cold water or in mucilaginous drinks to avoid its 
irritant action. Aromatic spirits of ammonia should be given in cap- 
sule, or in water or oil. They are frequently combined with cam- 
phor, capsicum, ginger, antispasmodics or other stimulants. Since 
they 'produce action very quickly, it is necessary to repeat them at 
short intervals to continue their stimulating effects. 

AMMONII CHLORIDUM — AMMONIUM CHLORIDE 

Synonyms. Sal Ammoniac, Muriate of Ammonia 
Ammonium chloride occurs as a white crystalline powder, with- 
out odor and having a cooling saline taste. It is permanent m air, 
very. soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. H. 5 j— iv ; 4.— 15. D. gr. ij— x ; 0.13—0.6. 

Action. Ammonium chloride is a very feeble heart and respira- 
torv stimulant and not nearly so effective as the carbonate. It is 
eliminated like the other ammonium preparations, and like them 
stimulates the mucosa? through which it is excreted and increases their 
secretions. It is eliminated to some extent through the bronchial 
mucous membrane increasing and thinning the secretion. It is a 
refrigerant externally. 

Therapeutics. Ammonium chloride is chiefly used as an expec- 
torant, especially in the second stage of acute bronchitis or in chronic 
bronchitis. It is frequently combined with heroine or codeine it 
cough is severe. It is used externally in solution in water as a ref rig- 



erant 



LIQUOR AMMONII ACETATIS — SOLUTION OF AMMONIUM 

ACETATE 

Synonym. Spirit of Minclererus 
This is an aqueous solution of ammonium acetate containing 7 
per cent, of the salt together with small amounts of acetic acid and 
carbon dioxide. It is prepared by gradually adding ammonium 
carbonate to cold diluted acetic acid until the latter is neutralized. 
It is a clear colorless liquid without odor and of a saline acidulous 
taste. 

Doses. H. 5 ij— iv ; 60.— 120. D. 5 ij— iv ; 8.— 15. 

Action and Uses. Solution of ammonium acetate is a mild 
diuretic, diaphoretic and antipyretic. It is a very feeble remedy and 
is often used as a vehicle for stronger agents with a similar action. 
It is frequently combined with spirits of nitrous ether as a lebriluge 
in the early stages of respiratory diseases. 



CHAPTER XXII 
ACIDS 

The acids included in this group are those inorganic and organic 
acids which act by virtue of their H ion and not in a specific manner, 
as in case of hydrocyanic, salicylic and arsenous acids. Since the 
action of all the acids of this group is quite similar, they will be 
discussed together. The action of acids may be described as local and 
remote. The local action consists of corrosion, when in concentra- 
tion (see caustics) while weaker solutions convert the proteids of 
the tissues into acid albuminates. Acids produce by local action: 
changes in either living or dead matter and destruction of body 
tissues in concentrated solutions. 

By a remote action they : 1. Exert a peculiar ion action in dilute 
solution due to the H ion. 

2. Modify digestion by action upon the digestive ferments. 

3. They produce changes by osmosis or salt action like any ab- 
sorbable salt since they are converted into salts before absorption. 

Actions. Externally they are irritant or caustic according to 
concentration. See Caustics. 

Internally. Dilute acids. All acids have a sour taste and 
are somewhat astringent. They reflexly stimulate the secretion of 
saliva, gastric and pancreatic juice. If any free acid reaches the in- 
testines, it serves as an irritant and stimulates peristalsis. Most 
acids, however, are absorbed or converted into salts before reaching 
the intestine so that the purgative action is rarely seen. 

Urine. Acids are strong diuretics, due in part to salt action and 
in part to the action of the H ion. The urine will become more 
acid not on account of the presence of acids but to acid salts. The 
acid urine leads to inflammation of the mucous membrane of the 
urinary tract, on account of which acids should be avoided in in- 
flammatory conditions of these passages. 

Toxicology. The corrosive action has been discussed under 
the head of caustics so will not be repeated. Besides the corrosive 
form of poisoning, herbivora become affected with the so-called " acid 
intoxication " which is due to a diminished alkalinity of the blood 
caused by the combination of the absorbed acids with the fixed alkali 
and excretion of the resultant compound. In this manner as the 
alkali decreases, less and less COo is absorbed from the tissues and 

364 



USES OF ACIDS 365 

on account of the diminished internal respiration, the animal dies 
from asphyxia before the blood becomes even neutral in reaction. 

The symptoms of acid intoxication are: gasping for breath, fol- 
lowed by short shallow respirations until they cease entirely. The 
heart grows progressively weaker and consciousness is lost. This 
form of intoxication is not seen in man or dogs and is best explained 
by the theory that they have a protective mechanism against this 
form of poisoning. Carnivora and omnivora consume a considerable 
amount of meat which causes the formation of acids. On the other 
hand, since they do not consume large quantities of alkaline salts in 
their food, their bodies easily form the alkaline ammonia which neu- 
tralizes the acids injested or produced in their metabolism. The 
carnivora excrete the acids mainly in the form of ammonium com- 
pounds, and the increase in the ammonia is at the expense of the 
urea which is correspondingly diminished. 

Acid intoxication may, however, be produced in carnivora, either 
by subcutaneous or intravenous injections of amounts greater than 
the body can take care of. In man a typical acid intoxication is seen 
at the end of diabetic coma. In this condition oxybutyria and dia- 
cetic acids are formed so rapidly that the protective phenomena are 
unable to neutralize them, although large amounts of ammonia are 
found in the blood and urine. 

Treatment. This is not very promising. Sodium bicarbonate 
should be administered in large doses per os or per rectum. Main- 
tain the circulatory and respiratory systems with stimulants. 

Elimination. Acids are excreted by the kidneys of herbivora 
as the salts of potassium, from the carnivora as the salts of ammon- 
ium. Since the body endeavors to retain all the alkali possible, it 
throws them out as acid salts and occasionally as free acids. These 
may cause irritation as stated previously. 

The organic acids as acetic, citric, lactic and tartaric are absorbed 
as the salts of the alkalies and are oxidized in their passage through 
the body, to carbonates and excreted as such by the kidneys, so that 
they do not lessen the alkalinity of the blood after internal admin- 
istration, nor render the urine more acid. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Caustics and escharotics. 

2. In dyspepsia due to diminished secretion of hydrochloric acid. 
Hydrochloric or nitrohydrochloric acids are to be preferred for this 
action and act best when administered with bitters. They are con- 
traindicated in conditions with hypersecretion of mucus. 

3. Antidotes to poisoning by alkalies. 

4. They are useful in fevers in human medicine to allay thirst and 
serve as mild diuretics. This is of but little importance to veterinar- 
ians. .« 



366 ACIDS 

THE GROUP IN DETAIL 

ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM — HYDROCHLORIC ACID 

Synonyms. Muriatic Acid, Spirit of Salt 

This is an aqueous solution containing not less than 31 nor more 
than 33 per cent, of hydrochloric acid. It is prepared by heat- 
ing sodium chloride and sulphuric acid ; and dissolving the gaseous 
hydrochloric acid thus obtained in water. It occurs as a colorless, 
fuming liquid, having a pungent odor and strong acid taste. It 
fumes when exposed to ammonia vapor or the air due to the forma- 
tion of ammonium chloride. The fumes and odor disappear on dilut- 
ing with two volumes of water. The ordinary commercial variety 
(strength 30-33 per cent.) has a golden yellow color due to the 
presence of iron and free chlorine. It also frequently contains 
arsenic and is therefore unsuitable for medical purposes. 

Preparation. Acidum Hydrochloricum Dilutum — Diluted hy- 
drochloric acid. 9.5 — 10.5 per cent. 

Doses. H. 5 j — ij ; 4. — 8. D. Vl\ x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. 

ACIDUM NITRICUM — NITRIC ACID 

Nitric acid U. S. P. contains not less than 67 per cent, nor more 
than 69 per cent, of absolute nitric acid. It occurs as a colorless 
liquid but assumes a yellow color and emits fumes of hyponitrous 
acid upon exposure to air. It stains organic matter yellow. 

Preparation. 

* Acidum Nitricum Dilutum. Diluted Nitric Acid. An aque- 
ous solution containing not less than 9.5 per cent, nor more than 
10.5 per cent, of absolute Nitric acid. 

Doses. H. 5 j — iv; 4. — 15. D. 111 iij — xv; 0.18 — 1. 

ACIDUM NITROHYDROCHLORICUM — NITROHYDRO- 
CHLORIC ACID 

Synonyms. Nitromuriatic Acid, Aqua Regia 

This is prepared by mixing 18 mils of nitric acid with 82 mils of 
hydrochloric acid in an open vessel and allowing the mixture to ef- 
fervesce. 

Preparation. 

Acidum Nitrohydrochloricum Dilutum. Diluted nitrohydro- 
chloric acid is prepared by mixing 10 mils of nitric acid, 45.5 mils 
of hydrochloric acid and 194.5 mils of distilled water. 

Doses. H. 3 i — ij ; 4 — 8. D. 1u, iij — xv ; 0.18 — 1. 

* Unofficial. 



ACIDUM SULPHURICUM — SULPHURIC ACID 367 

It lias been claimed by some that this acid is a hepatic stimulant 
but it is generally believed to exert nothing more than an acid action. 

ACIDUM PHOSPHORICUM — PHOSPHORIC ACID 

Phosphoric acid U. S. P. is a colorless liquid containing not less 
than 85 per cent, nor more than 88 per cent, of phosphoric acid. 
It is prepared by burning phosphorus, dissolving the resulting oxides 
in water and completing the oxidation with nitric acid. 

Preparation. Acidum Phosphoricum Dilutum. Diluted phos- 
phoric acid. Not less than 9.5 per cent, nor more than 10.5 per 
cent, by weight of phosphoric acid. 

Doses. H. 5 j — iv; 4 — 15. D. Vt\ iij — xxx; 0.18 — 2. 

Phosphoric acid is held by some to be less injurious to digestion 
than the others but this is doubtful. 

ACIDUM SULPHURICUM — SULPHURIC ACID 

Synonyms. Oil of Vitriol, Vitriol 

This is a colorless, syrupy fluid containing not less than 93 per 
cent, nor more than 95 per cent, of sulphuric acid. It acquires a 
brownish color if exposed to dust. It is miscible in all proportions 
with alcohol and water but the mixing evolves much heat and must 
be done carefully, and by pouring the acid gradually into the water 
or alcohol and constantly stirring the mixture. It is prepared on a 
large scale by burning pyrites or native sulphur. The S0 2 fumes 
are oxidized by means of nitrous fumes produced by the action of 
concentrated sulphuric acid on Chili saltpeter. The product is 
condensed in a system of lead chambers, in the presence of steam, 
and concentrated first in lead pans, and then distilled from glass 
or platinum retorts. The commercial variety contains arsenic and 
consequently must be avoided in internal medicine. Sulphuric acid 
is very corrosive and chars organic material. 

Preparations. Acidum Sidphuricwn Dilutum. Diluted Sul- 
phuric acid. Not less than 9.5 per cent, nor more than 10.5 per cent, 
of sulphuric acid. 

Doses. H. 5 ij— vj ; 8—24. D. TTL v— xv; 0.33 — 2. 

Acidum Sulphuricum Aromaticum. Aromatic Sulphuric Acid 
contains about 20 per cent, of sulphur acid, alcohol, tincture of 
Gentian and oil of cinnamon. Doses. Half those of the diluted 
acid. It is doubtful if this preparation has any advantages over 
the preceding. 

Action and Uses. Sulphuric acid is not often used in medi- 
cine. 



368 ACIDS 

ACIDUM SULPHUROSUM — SULPHUROUS ACID 

This is a solution containing at least 6 per cent, of sulphur dioxide. 
Dose. H. 3 ij — viij ; 8 — 30. D. TT\, v — xv; 0.33 — 1. It is pre- 
pared by allowing sulphuric acid to act upon charcoal, the resulting 
sulphur dioxide being dissolved in water. It should be kept well 
corked in amber bottles. 

Action and Uses. It is used as a disinfectant and parasiticide 
in skin diseases and for gastric fermentation. This acid is also 
formed by burning sulphur in the presence of moisture and is used 
in this manner as a favorite method of fumigating stables, etc. 

ACIDUM ACETICUM — ACETIC ACID 

Acetic acid is a liquid containing from 36 to 37 per cent, by 
weight of absolute acetic acid. It corresponds very closely to the 
#8 of commerce. It occurs as a clear colorless liquid, of strongly 
characteristic vinegar-like odor and sharply acid taste. 

Preparations. Acidum Aceticum Glaciate. 

Glacial Acetic acid contains 99 per cent, by weight of absolute 
acetic acid. 

Acidum Aceticum Dilutum. Diluted acetic acid must contain 
not less than 5.7 per cent, nor more than 6.3 per cent, of absolute 
acetic acid. 

Doses. H. % j— ij ; 30.— 60. D. 3 ss— j ; 2.-4. 

Action and Uses. 

1. Glacial acetic acid is used as a caustic to remove warts. 

* ACIDUM PYROLIGNOSUM — PYROLIGNEOUS ACID 

Synonym. Wood Vinegar 

This is prepared by the destructive distillation of wood. It con- 
tains from 5 to 7 per cent, of acetic acid, some methyl alcohol, acetone 
and tar. 

Action and Uses. Used externally to combine the effects of 
acetic acid and tar. 

Acetum. Vinegar is an impure form of diluted acetic acid con- 
taining from 4 to 7 per cent, of acetic acid prepared by the fermenta- 
tion of cider or wine. 

ACIDUM CITRICUM — CITRIC ACID 

Properties. Colorless translucent crystals or white powder, odor- 
less acid taste, efflorescent in warm air. 

Citric acid is widely distributed throughout the vegetable king- 
* Unofficial. 



ACIDUM OXALICUM — OXALIC ACID 369 

dom. It occurs either free or in combination with potassium, cal- 
cium or magnesium. It is present in large amounts in all acid fruits 
and usually occurs with malonic, tartaric or other organic acids. It 
is prepared by allowing lemon juice to ferment during which process 
the o-ummy matter is precipitated. The proteids arc removed by 
boilinc and the filtered juice treated with chalk, forming calcium 
citrate This is then decomposed by sulphuric acid and the citric 
acid separated by crystallization. It is soluble in 0.54 of water in 
1.55 of alcohol. It is not used except as the vegetable salts of the 
alkalies. 

ACIDUM TART ARICUM — TARTARIC ACID 

This is a dibasic organic acid usually obtained from wine lees or 
argol. It occurs as colorless translucent, monoclinic prisms, or as 
a white granular or fine powder; odorless, having an acid taste; 
permanent in dry air. Soluble in 0.75 part of water and 3.3 of 
alcohol. 

It is not used in veterinary medicine. 

ACIDUM TRICHLORACETICUM 

Trichloracetic acid is prepared through the oxidation of chloral. 
It occurs as colorless, deliquescent, rhombohedral crystals, of a 
slightly characteristic odor. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. 
It is used as a caustic for warts. Is less painful than nitric acid. 

ACIDUM LACTICUM — LACTIC ACID 

Lactic Acid is prepared by subjecting invert sugar to lactic fer- 
mentation in the presence of zinc oxide. The zinc lactate so formed 
is then decomposed by hydrogen sulphide, and the filtered solution 
evaporated to the desired amount. It occurs as a syrupy, colorless, 
odorless liquid with an intensely acid taste. It is miscible with al- 
cohol, water or ether. Externally, it is a caustic. It has no in- 
ternal indications. 

ACIDUM OXALICUM — OXALIC ACID 

Oxalic Acid is prepared by the action of nitric acid upon sugar 
or starch or by fusing sawdust with a mixture of sodium and potas- 
sium hydroxides. It is purified by recrystallization. It occurs as 
small colorless crystals, soluble in 10 parts of water, 2.5 parts of 
alcohol. 

Uses. Oxalic acid is a caustic but is not often used on account 
of its dangerous action following absorption. It has little real value 
in medicine but may be used to remove stains of potassium perman- 
ganate. 



370 ACIDS 



ACIDUM STEARICUM — STEARIC ACID 

This is prepared by the decomposition of fats, especially tallow 
with acid, either directly or after previous saponification, and sepa- 
rating the liquid portion, oleic acid, by expression. It occurs as a 
hard, white, odorless, tasteless solid, soluble in alcohol and ether, 
melting at a temperature not lower than 56° C. It is used to give 
consistency to ointments and cerates. 

ACIDUM OLEICUM — OLEIC ACID 

The preparation of this acid has been described under stearic 
acid. It occurs as a yellow oily fluid, of lard like odor and taste. It 
is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, ether and fat solvents. It is 
used pharmaceutically in the preparation of plaster, ointments, soaps 
and liniments. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
GROUP OF HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 

This group comprises the free halogens : chlorine, bromine, iodine 
and those compounds of these elements from which they are easily 
liberated in the free state. The free halogens are all irritants and 
corrosives. This action is brought about by their entering very 
easily into chemical combination with all organic matter, by with- 
drawing hydrogen from it and forming hydrochloric, hydrobromic 
and hydriotic acids, which exert the usual acid actions. Further- 
more by breaking up the water of the tissues they will set free ozone, 
which is also irritant. This explains the irritant, corrosive and 
antiseptic action of the haloids. 

The above actions are most marked with chlorine, less so with 
bromine, and least of all with iodine. If chlorine is kept in con- 
tact with the skin there is a severe destruction of tissue. Bromine, 
however, has almost as severe an action and by some authorities is 
given first place over chlorine. Being at the same time a liquid, 
and volatile, it can remain for a longer time in contact with the 
skin, and penetrates very deeply, producing marked destruction of 
tissues and slow healing ulcers. The action of iodine is much less 
violent and will be discussed in detail later. 

Both chlorine and bromine are very irritant to the mucous mem- 
brane of the respiratory tract and may cause bronchitis or inflam- 
mation and edema of the lungs. One part of bromine to a million 
is said to be disagreeable while ten parts to a million are dangerous. 
When the halogens are taken internally in sufficient quantities, death 
takes place from gastroenteritis and collapse. The symptoms are 
severe pain in the throat, esophagus and abdomen, together with 
bloody vomiting and purging. If the quantity ingested is not suffi- 
cient to produce death, ulcers are found at the points of contact, espe- 
cially in the stomach and esophagus. If these ulcers do not per- 
forate and cause death they heal by cicatricial formation which may 
produce stenosis of the esophagus. The chemical antidote for chlor- 
ine and bromine is albumen ; for iodine, it is starch. Their toxic- 
action is purely local. 

BROMUM — BROMINE 

This is a nonmetallic element obtained from sea water. It is a 
dark, reddish brown liquid, evolving, even at normal temperatures, 

371 



372 HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 

irritating and suffocating fumes; soluble in 28 parts of water, also 
soluble in alcohol and ether. 

Action and Uses. It is an escharotic, caustic, irritant, disin- 
fectant and deodorant as mentioned previously. It has been em- 
ployed as an escharotic for cancerous growths but has been practically 
discarded. 

Principal salts are the bromides which have been discussed previ- 
ously. See page 155. 

CHLORUM — CHLORINE 

This is a heavy, yellowish green gas, with a suffocating odor and 
caustic taste. It may be prepared by heating together sodium chlor- 
ide, sulphuric acid and manganese dioxide, or by the action of an 
acid upon chlorinated lime. 

Preparations. * Liquor Chlori Compositus. Contains at least 
4 per cent, of gas with some oxides of chlorine and potassium chlor- 
ide. 

Doses. Not used internally. 

Action and Uses. The actions are same as for chlorine but it 
is used more as a disinfectant and deodorant. It is particularly 
serviceable as a disinfectant for cesspools, animal discharges, etc., 
but not for rooms and stables since it is so exceedingly irritant, 
and besides it is so heavy that it does not diffuse readily. The 
solution is very unstable, but has been used as a wash for fetid sores 
and as an intestinal antiseptic. Its use has largely been discontinued. 

CALX CHLORINATA — CHLORINATED LIME 

Synonym. Bleaching Powder (improperly called chloride of lime) 

Chlorinated lime is made by passing chlorine over slaked lime 
and should contain not less than 30 per cent, of available chlorine. 
It consists principally of hypochlorite and chloride of calcium and 
occurs as a grayish white powder, with strong chlorine odor and dis- 
agreeable saline taste. Slightly soluble in water and alcohol. 

Action and Uses. Always as a disinfectant and deodorant. 
Solutions of from Y2 to 1 per cent, kill most bacteria in ten minutes. 
One half per cent, solution of freshly prepared chlorinated lime 
makes an excellent solution for disinfecting walls and clothes. A 1 
per cent, solution is useful to disinfect animal discharges. 

Dakin's Antiseptic. Dakin devised a carefully standardized 
neutral solution of the hypochlorites which has given excellent results 
as an antiseptic in the European war. Carrel, in the Journal of the 
American Medical Association, December 9, 1916, gives the follow- 
ing directions for its preparation. The solution must be free from 
alkali hydroxide, and the concentration of the sodium hypochlorite 

* Unofficial. 



CARREL-DAKIN SOLUTION 373 

must be exactly between 0.45 and 0.50 per cent, in the finished 
product. Chlorinated lime, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbon- 
ate are required for making the solution. Since the chlorinated lime 
varies so greatly in its chlorine content, which is the active in- 
gredient, it is necessary to determine the amount in each case. This 
is done by thoroughly mixing 20 gms. of the chlorinated lime to be 
used with one liter of ordinary water, allow to stand for a few 
hours, with occasional agitation, then filter. Then take 10 mils of 
the filtered solution, 20 mils of a 1 — 10 solution of potassium iodide 
and 2 mils of acetic or hydrochloric acid and titrate dropwise with 
a deci-normal sodium thiosulphate solution until decoloration is com- 
plete. The amount of sodium thiosulphate solution used, in mils 
multiplied by 1.775 gives the weight of the active chlorine in 100 
grams of the chlorinated lime. Then by referring to the accom- 
panying table the amounts of the various agents required to make 
10 liters of solution may be obtained. 

For instance, if the volume of the thiosulphate solution required 
is 16.6 mils — 16.6 multiplied by 1.775 equals 29.7 grams (29.7 per 
cent.) chlorine in 100 grams of the chlorinated lime. This corre- 
sponds very closely in the table to 

Chlorinated lime 154 gms. 

Dry Sodium Carbonate 77 gms. 

Sodium Bicarbonate 64 gms. 

Quantities of Ingredients for Ten Liters of Dakin's Solution. 

Liter of Chlorinated Anhydrous Sodium 

Chlorinated Lime. Gm. Sodium Bicarbonate 

Lime Carbonate, Gm. Gm. 

20 230 115 96 

21 220 110 92 

22 210 105 88 

23 200 100 84 

24 192 96 80 

25 184 92 76 

26 177 89 72 

27 * 170 85 70 

28 164 82 68 

29 159 80 66 

30 154 77 64 

31 148 74 62 

32 144 72 60 

33 140 70 59 

34 135 68 57 

35 132 66 55 

36 128 64 53 

37 124 62 52 

To prepare 10 liters of solution, weigh the agents carefully, place 
the chlorinated lime and 5 liters of ordinary water in a jar of 
about 12 liters capacity, agitate well for a few minutes and allow 



374 HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 

to stand for 6 to 12 hours. At the same time, dissolve the sodium 
carbonate and bicarbonate in 5 more liters of water. Pour the soIut 
tion of the sodium salts in the mixture of chlorinated lime, agitate 
thoroughly, then allow to remain undisturbed so that the calcium 
carbonate will settle. At the end of one-half hour, siphon off the 
liquid and filter through double paper. The filtrate is the Carrel- 
Dakin solution. Protect from the light. 

Since the solution does not keep well, it is wise to verify the 
strength from time to time as follows : To 10 mils of the solution 
add 20 mils of a 1 — 10 solution of potassium iodide and 2 mils of 
acetic or hydrochloric acid. Titrate this mixture dropwise with a 
deci-normal solution of sodium thiosulphate until decoloration is 
complete. The amount of thiosulphate solution in mils multiplied by 
0.03725 will give the weight of sodium hypochlorite in 100 mils of 
the solution, 12 to 13 mils should be required for the reaction. Thus 
13 multiplied by 0.03725 equals 0.485 gms. (0.48 per cent.). 

The alkalinity may be tested from time to time by dropping a 
few centigrams of phenolphthalein in powder form upon 20 mils of 
the solution. There should be no change in tint. 

IODUM — IODINE 

Iodine is a nonmetallic element obtained from the ashes of sea 
weed and is found in the mother liquor obtained in the purification 
of Chile saltpeter. It occurs as bluish-black friable crystals, hav- 
ing a metallic lustre, peculiar odor and sharp acrid taste. Upon 
heating it gives off a violet colored vapor. One gram is soluble in 
2950 mils of water, 12.5 mils of alcohol, 80 mils of glycerin, and 
very soluble in ether, chloroform and solutions of potassium iodide. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Iodum. H. and C. 5 ss — j ; 2. — 4. Dog. Not often used* 
Tinctura Iodi. Iodine 7 grams, potassium iodide 5 grams, 
water 5 mils, and alcohol enough to make 100 mils. 

Liquor Iodi Compositus (Lugol's Solution). 5 per cent, of io- 
dine in 10 per cent, aqueous solution of Potassium Iodide. 

H. and C. 5 ij— iv; 8.— 15. Dog, ni ij— x; 0.12—0.6. 

* Tinctura Iodi Decolorata 1ST. P. This is really a solution 

of iodides and does not contain free iodine. 
Unguentum Iodi. Iodine 4 gms., Potassium Iodide 4 gms., 

glycerin 12 gms., and benzoinated lard 80 gms. 

Incompatibles. Iodine is incompatible with alkaloids, mineral 

salts, ammonia, carbonates, starch and mucilage of acacia. It acts 

strongly upon turpentine and some other volatile oils. The tincture 

* Unofficial. ; 



USES OF IODINE 375 

is incompatible with water, so should be used only upon dry or de- 
hydrated surfaces (operating areas) as water precipitates the iodine. 

External and Local Actions. The action of iodine is quite 
different from that of the previously discussed halogens. Free io- 
dine is one of the most useful counterirritants. Iodine produces its 
action in a manner similar to the other halogens ; it precipitates pro- 
teids and forms easily decomposed compounds with them. For this 
reason it remains for some time at the point of application, and, since 
it is volatile, it also penetrates very deeply so that we have an agent 
of lasting and penetrating properties. Its irritant action, however, 
is mild, seldom producing more than redness and desquamation to- 
gether with some smarting at the point of application. Since its 
action is so mild, and can be graduated by successive coatings, it is 
valuable to obtain long sensory irritation without deeply injuring 
the tissues. 

Applied directly to the skin, iodine causes some burning and 
leaves a yellow stain. This discoloration may be removed by a 
solution of ammonia or hyposulphite of soda. It is very painful to 
raw surfaces or when injected into serous sacs and causes some in- 
flammation in the latter case. 

Taken internally, iodine is absorbed quite rapidly, as the iodides, 
and some is found in practically all the secretions ; it is largely elim- 
inated by the urine, as the iodide. In small doses it exerts the same 
symptoms as the iodides (see page 379) and may produce iodism 
under the same conditions. Toxic doses internally are discussed 
under general discussion of the halogens. 

Uses. 1. C ounterirritant. Iodine is very useful when a mild, 
persistent action is desired, as in the removal of inflammatory prod- 
ucts, edema, rheumatism, arthritis, synovitis, bony growths, etc. 
The tincture or stronger solutions may be used for this purpose. 

2. Cysts, Enlarged Bursa?, etc. The tincture or Lugol's solution 
is used as an injection into cysts, enlarged bursas, etc. to destroy the 
cyst wall and produce an adhesive inflammation. This is a very pain- 
ful procedure and may result in local gangrene. Occasionally, also, 
sufficient is absorbed to produce general symptoms of poisoning. 

3. Goiter. In simple goiter iodine in the form of Lugol's solu- 
tion or the tincture has been used as an injection directly into the 
gland. There is some difference of opinion regarding its action but it 
is most generally believed to produce its action as an irritant and not 
as iodine or the iodides internally. 

4. To reduce enlarged, glands. The tincture or ointment is 
applied locally. 

5. Parasiticide. Tincture or ointment, particularly for ring- 
worm. 

6. Absorbent. For bony growths, etc., generally discussed un- 
der counterirritants. (See page 342.) 



376 HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 

7. Antiseptic and stimulant for wounds. The tincture is a good 
antiseptic for operating areas. The area should be thoroughly dried 
with alcohol or other means before applying because water precipi- 
tates the iodine and prevents its penetration. The tincture may also 
be used as an antiseptic for fresh wounds or may be applied to 
chronic wounds where it is both antiseptic and stimulant. In the 
form of Lugol's solution 0.25 per cent, in water it is valuable as a 
uterine and vaginal douche in metritis of cattle. It may be used 
much stronger if not allowed to come into contact with the vagina, 
as the uterus will stand much stronger solutions than the vagina. 

8. In periodic ophthalmia of horses the injection of 2 mils of 
Lugol's solution into the fatty pad over the eye at 10 day intervals 
has been found useful. 

9. Internally iodine is used chiefly in colloid goiter and other 
glandular enlargements. Thyroid extract is probably of more serv- 
ice in the first condition and the iodides in the second. 

R Absorbent. 

Hydrargyri Chloridi Corrosivi 3 j 

Potassii Iodidi 3 j 

Iodi 3 jss 

Aqiue q. s ad. O. ij 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Apply daily with a brush. 

R Tincturse Iodi 5 iij 

Olei Terebinthinae 3 j 

Alcoholis § iv 

M. Ft. Sol. 
Sig. Apply daily. 

R Blister. 

Iodi 3 j 

Hydrargyri Iodidi Rubri 3 ij 

Adipis q. s ad. 3 j 

3 Liquoris Iodi Compositi. 

Glycerini aa TH. xv 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Inject in fatty pad over eye for periodic ophthalmia of horses. 



IODOFORMUM — IODOFORM 

Iodoform, or triiodomethane, is methyl with three atoms of hydro^ 
gen replaced with three of iodine. It is obtained by the action of 
iodine upon alcohol, or acetone in the presence of an alkali or alka- 
line carbonate. It occurs as a lemon colored powder or hexagonal 
crystals, having a peculiar penetrating odor, and sweetish iodine-like 
taste. It is freely soluble in ether, chloroform and oils, in about 60 



IODOFORM 377 

parts of alcohol, 80 of glycerin, and feebly soluble in water. It con- 
tains 97 per cent, of iodine. 

Doses. H. 5 ss — j ; 2. — 4. D. gr. ij — viij ; 0.13 — 0.5. 

Preparation. Unguentum Iodofarmi 10 per cent, in ben- 
zoinated lard. 

Action. Iodoform is a mild anesthetic to raw surfaces and 
mucous membranes. Iodoform itself is insoluble and probably in- 
active. It is also stable outside the body but in the presence of 
tissues or their extracts, especially diseased tissues and their accom- 
panying bacteria, it is slowly decomposed, freeing the iodine. This 
freeing is brought about slowly but is sufficient to be antiseptic and 
stimulant to the cells ; it is therefore very valuable in treating open 
sores since it promotes healing by stimulating the cells and also by 
exerting an antiseptic action. It is quite easily absorbed from raw 
surfaces, appearing in the urine in a short time as the iodide, al- 
though it is also eliminated to some extent by all other secretions. If 
absorbed too freely it produces serious symptoms which may become 
fatal. These symptoms consist of depression, contraction of the pu- 
pils, nausea and vomiting, very rapid pulse, delirium, stupor and 
coma. Since the iodides or iodine do not produce cerebral symptoms, 
it is thought that this action is due to the iodoform itself. 

The treatment of poisoning consists in maintaining the strength 
of the animal and favoring the elimination of the iodoform by injec- 
tions of salt solutions and alkaline diuretics. Sodium bicarbonate is 
said to be antidotal to poisoning by iodoform. Vinegar will remove 
the odor from the hands. 

Uses. Internally. The only place where iodoform has been 
recommended internally is in pulmonary tuberculosis, and this has 
practically been abandoned. 

• Externally. It is used as a local application to infected wounds. 
In various ulcers it is very valuable as a dusting powder. In the 
form of iodoform gauze it is a valuable packing for fistulous tracts, 
deep wounds, rectal, vaginal and nasal cavities. It may also be 
injected into these cavities in solution in olive oil or glycerin. 

Williams recommends an ounce capsule of iodoform, placed di- 
rectly into the uterus, for retained afterbirth and metritis of cows. 

Iodoform suppositories may be very serviceable in painful hemor- 
rhoids or fissure of the anus, serving a twofold purpose, anesthetic and 
antiseptic. Iodoform collodion makes a very good protectant dress- 
ing for aseptic wounds. 

It may be used as a dusting powder, applied as the ointment, in 
solution in oil, collodion, or glycerin, or in combination with boric 
acid or tannin. 



378 HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 



IODOFORM SUBSTITUTES 

On account of the strong - , disagreeable, persistent odor which can- 
not be overcome by the strongest perfumes, many investigations have 
l)een made to obtain iodoform substitutes. These have led to several 
products which have a less disagreeable odor than iodoform. The fol- 
lowing are the most important : 

* lodoformin is a combination of iodoform with hexamethylena- 
mine. * I odo formal is a combination of iodof ormin with ethyl io- 
dide, while * Iodof ormogen is a combination of iodoform with a co- 
agulated proteid. 

These three preparations have a faint iodoform-like odor. lodo- 
formin is whitish in color, the others, yellow. The first two liberate 
iodoform in the presence of water. lodoformin contains 75 per cent, 
of iodoform and iodoformogen, 10 per cent. The high price and un- 
certainty of action have limited the use of these preparations. 

* IODOLUM — IODOL 

TETRA-IODO-PYRRHOL 

This is prepared by the action of iodine upon pyrrhol, a prin- 
ciple obtained from bone oil. It contains a little less than 90 per 
cent, of iodine, occurs as a grayish brown crystalline powder, devoid 
of odor and taste. It is almost insoluble in water but is soluble in 
alcohol, ether and oils. It has the advantage over iodoform of being 
odorless. 

THYMOLIS IODIDUM — THYMOL IODIDE 

Synonym. Aristol 

Aristol is a proprietary drug introduced to take the place of 
iodoform. It was and still is very expensive but nevertheless gained 
so much favor among surgeons that, in the 8th revision of the U. S. P., 
it was introduced as thymol iodide, which it is chemically. It con- 
tains about 45 per cent, of iodine, is a light brown or brownish red 
bulky powder, with a very slight aromatic odor, insoluble in water, 
slightly soluble in alcohol, but soluble in ether, chloroform, collodion 
and oils. It is decomposed by light, heat, acids, alkalies, alcohol and 
mercuric chloride. 

Uses. Entirely external as a substitute for iodoform, over which 
it has the advantage of being odorless, but on the other hand it is 
unstable, and more costly. 

* Europhen. (Di-Isobutyl-Cresol-Iodide). This is a cresol 
iodide made by precipitating an alkaline solution of isobutyl-ortho- 
cresol with a solution of iodine in potassium iodide. It contains 25 

* Unofficial. 



POTASSII IODIDUM — POTASSIUM IODIDE 379 

per cent, of iodine, occurs as a light yellow, amorphous powder, of an 
aromatic odor, soluble in alcohol, ether and oils, insoluble in glycerin 
and water. 

Uses. Substitute for iodoform. 

* Eigon and Diodof orm. Eigon, an iodine proteid and diodo- 
form (iodoethylene), C 2 I 4 are yellow odorless powders. They are 
used as iodoform substitutes but have also been used internally for 
their iodine effect but have no advantages over the other iodides. 

The antiseptic effect of iodoform has also been sought by intro- 
ducing iodine into the nucleus of the benzol derivatives but the iodine 
is held so firmly that they do not possess the iodoform action, but are 
nevertheless antiseptics due to the benzol constituents. Among these 
preparations are losophan, nosophen, antinosin, eudoxin, sozoidol and 
picrol. 

* Losophan (tri-iodo-meta-cresol), occurs as white, odorless 
needles, almost insoluble in water. This is very irritant and is 
chiefly used against parasitic skin affections in from 1 to 3 per cent, 
ointments. It contains 80 per cent, of iodine but does not free it in 
the tissues. 

* Nosophen (Tetra-iodo-phenolphthalein), and its bismuth salt, 
Eudoxin, are brown powders, practically insoluble in water. They 
are used externally, as iodoform. 

* Antinosin, the sodium salt of nosophen, occurs as blue crystals, 
soluble in water. It is used in solution of 0.1 to 2 per cent, as an 
antiseptic. 

* Sozoidol and Picrol are oxidized aromatic sulpho acids. So- 
zoidol is chemically Di-iodo-phenol-sulphoacid. It is used in the 
form of its salts of mercury, sodium, potassium and zinc as an anti- 
septic. 

IODIDES 

The iodides of potassium, ammonium, sodium, strontium, and 
lead are official. Besides these we have diluted hydriodic acid which 
is used for the iodide action. Potassium iodide is the preparation 
most used, so will be discussed in detail, and the differences in the 
actions of the others pointed out. 

POTASSII IODIDUM — POTASSIUM IODIDE 

Potassium iodide occurs as colorless, transparent or translucent 
crystals, or as a white granular powder, having a pungent saline taste, 
soluble in 0.7 part of water, 2.5 parts of glycerin and 12 of alcohol. 

Doses. H. 5 j — ijss; 5 — 10. D. gr. iij — xv; 0.2 — 1. 
* Unofficial. 



380 HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 

Preparations. 

* Unguentum Potassii Iodidi. 10 per cent. KI and 0.6 per cent, 
of Potassium Carbonate. 

Incompatlbles. Almost everything: mineral acids, mineral 
salts, alkaloids, spirits of nitrous ether. 

Action, Potassium iodide is classed as an alterative because 
no effects will be noticed if a single moderate dose is administered to 
a healthy animal, except some increase in secretions and possibly some 
upsetting of the stomach. It is rapidly absorbed from all parts of 
the digestive tract and reappears in the secretions in a few minutes 
after its administration to a man. It is chiefly eliminated by the 
kidneys but small amounts are also eliminated by the saliva, tears, 
milk and sweat. There is some belief that small amounts are re- 
tained in the body which may account for its accumulation or iodism. 
Large doses cause burning in the stomach, and gastroenteritis with its 
attendant phenomena, while the continuous use leads to a toxic group 
of symptoms, or iodism. This action has not been satisfactorily ex- 
plained but by some is believed to be due to the free iodine into which 
a small amount of the iodide may be changed. The symptoms of iod- 
ism are especially pronounced in the mucous membranes of the 
respiratory tract and other mucous membranes involved in its 
elimination. There is pain in the frontal region, sneezing, run- 
ning at the nose, soreness of the throat, lachrymation, increased 
secretion of saliva, loss of appetite and sometimes a scaly skin erup- 
tion. Some cases may show symptoms of Grave's disease, such as 
palpitation of the heart, tremors, sweating and loss of weight, prob- 
ably due to some influence upon iodine in the thyroid gland. In still 
other cases the prolonged administration of iodine may cause atrophy 
of the testicles, mammae, paralysis and blindness. Iodism is im- 
portant to remember because there is a considerable difference in 
susceptibility of animals to the drug and also for the reason that the 
drug is frequently pushed to full effect or until iodism occurs and is 
them immediately stopped. 

Action on Thyroids. Marine and Lenhart found that the thy- 
roids take up iodine, no matter in what form administered and 
whether the glands were normal, colloid or hyperplastic. They also 
found that those with hyperplastic glands lost weight for a week or 
two after the administration of the iodine but then rapidly gained, 
and that iodine hastened the tendency of all hyperplasias to become 
colloid. 

Uses. 1. As a specific in actinomycosis. Administer medium 
or large doses internally, and apply iodine to the lesion, for sev- 
eral days, then omit for a few days and begin over again. Or ad- 
minister the iodide until iodism occurs and then stop it for a time. 

* Unofficial. 



AMMONII IODIDUM — AMMONIUM IODIDE 381 

It is reported to be also efficacious in botryomycosis, in which condi- 
tion it is administered the same as in actinomycosis. 

2. In acute and chronic rheumatism. Iodide of potash is often 
very serviceable in either of these forms of rheumatism. Its action 
cannot be explained and it seems to be more effective in the chronic 
variety. 

3. As an expectorant in chronic bronchitis and laryngitis, when 
the secretions are viscid. This action is believed to be due to reflex 
effect. It is very useful in bronchial asthma, probably due to its 
expectorant action. 

4. Absorbent for hyperplastic fibrous tissues, as glandular swell- 
ings, and chronic inflammatory swellings. It may cure fibrous goiter 
by causing a disappearance of the fibrous tissue and may be of service 
in removing colloid goiters. 

5. To remove serous effusions. It is generally held that potas- 
sium iodide will aid in the absorption of effusion into the pericardium 
and pleura, but this is of doubtful value. 

6. Antidote to chronic metallic poisoning. The iodides are par- 
ticularly serviceable in chronic lead and mercury poisoning, by has- 
tening their excretion. There is some doubt of their efficacy in these 
conditions. 

7. In arteriosclerosis and aneurism or any condition of high blood 
pressure, due probably to a decrease in the viscosity of the blood, and 
an increase in the activity of the thyroid. 

8. Alterative. The drug has been recommended as an alterative 
in various conditions in which its true value is unknown. 

Administration. Since there is a wide variation in susceptibil- 
ity to the drug and idiosyncrasies are common, the initial dose should 
be small and the doses gradually increased as the tolerance permits. 

SODII IODIDUM — SODIUM IODIDE 

This occurs as colorless, cubical crystals, or white crystalline pow- 
der, of a bitter, saline taste. It is unstable in the air as it decom- 
poses into sodium carbonate and free iodine. It is soluble in 0.5 
part of water and 3 of alcohol. 

Doses. Same as for the potassium salt. 

It has the same range of therapeutic uses as the previous salt, but 
may be less irritating to the stomach. 

AMMONII IODIDUM — AMMONIUM IODIDE 

Ammonium iodide occurs as small, colorless, cubical crystals, or 
white powder, of strong saline taste ; it attracts water upon exposure 
to the air, and becomes a yellowish brown color on account of the free 
iodine. It is soluble in 0.6 part of water and 9 of alcohol. 



382 HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 

The doses are the same as for potassium iodide. 
Uses. This salt is more irritant to the stomach than potassium 
iodide, otherwise its actions and uses are identical. 

STRONTII IODIDUM — STRONTIUM IODIDE 

Occurs as colorless or faintly yellow hexagonal plates, deliques- 
cent, bitter taste, and soluble in 0.5 part of water. 

Uses. This drug is less active than the potassium salt and also 
less liable to produce iodism. 

PLUMBI IODIDUM — LEAD IODIDE 

This iodide really belongs with the lead salts since it is never 
used internally for the iodide effect. It occurs as a heavy, bright 
yellow powder, odorless, tasteless, permanent in the air and almost 
insoluble in water. 

Preparation. 

Unguentum Plumbi lodidi. 

Action and Uses. This drug is rarely used internally. Ex- 
ternally applied as an ointment, it is very serviceable as a resolvent 
application for nonsuppurative adenitis. It should be applied thor- 
oughly and rubbed in well with gentle friction. 

SULPHURIS IODIDUM — SULPHUR IODIDE 

This is made by fusing sulphur and iodine. It is used externally 
in ointment or liniment in parasitic skin diseases. 

ACIDUM HYDRIODICUM — HYDRIODIC ACID 

This acid is official as acidum hydriodicum dilutum, which con- 
tains 10 per cent, by weight of the absolute acid, also as Syrupus 
Acidi Hydriodici, which contains 1 per cent, of the acid. These 
agents are both feeble in action but resemble those of the iodides. 

* IODIPIN (IODIZED SESAME OIL) 

This is an iodine addition product of sesame oil. It occurs as 
a thick, yellow to brownish black oil. It is proprietary and is 
marketed in two strengths, iodopin, 10 per cent, and iodipin 25 per 
cent. Iodipin, veterinary, is a similar but cheaper preparation. 

Action and Uses. It acts in the system similarly to the iodides. 
It is not decomposed in the stomach but is broken up slowly in the 
intestines. Its action is claimed to be more lasting than the iodides 
* Unofficial. 



THYROIDEUM SICCUM 383 

and iodism is less likely to be caused. The ten per cent, solution is 
for medication per os and the twenty-five per cent, solution is for 
hypodermic use. 

THYROIDEUM SICCUM — DRIED THYROID GLANDS 

Synonym. Desiccated Thyroid Glands 

This is the dried thyroid glands of animals which are used for 
food by man, freed from connective tissue and fat and containing 
not less than 0.17 nor more than 0.23 per cent, of iodine. By spe- 
cial treatment, thyroiodin and thyrogiobulin may be obtained from 
them. 

Doses. Dog gr. ij— v; 0.12—0.3. 

The thyroids of most animals contain iodine, those of man and 
dogs, more than those of the horse, ox, sheep and pig. Yet these ani- 
mals are as healthy as others and react as strongly after the removal 
of the glands. 

Effects of Removal of the Thyroids (Thyroidectomy). If 
the thyroids are removed from dogs they soon show reflex excitability 
and occasionally convulsions, and die within a few days. Thyroid, 
injected intravenously, a few hours before death will stimulate all the 
vital functions. In man and monkey, the symptoms develop much 
more slowly and are characterized by a condition very similar to 
that of myxedema. 

Action. Thyroids have their principal action upon metabolism, 
increasing both proteid and fat destruction. The action depends 
upon the iodine content because the ratio of loss is in proportion to 
the amount of iodine in the glands. Thyroids which do not contain 
iodine, do not have this action. There is some controversy as to its 
action on fat metabolism although thyroid has been in use for a long 
time in the treatment of obesity. Yet thyroid is not an ideal anti-fat 
because an ideal treatment for obesity should increase the reduction 
of fat without affecting protein waste. The administration of thyroid 
at any rate causes tissue waste which cannot be stopped by feeding 
carbohydrates or fat. The augmented protein elimination accounts 
for about one sixth of the loss of weight according to Dixon, and the 
rest must be due to destruction of fat and removal of fluid. There 
is some clinical evidence that thyroid will promote the union of frac- 
tured bones or the growth of bone in normal animals. 

Some investigators have considered that thyroid is but an organic 
form of iodine because in many cases the reaction depends upon the 
amount of iodine in the preparation, and may be borne out by the 
similarity of its effects to those of iodine in some conditions, but thy- 
roids produce results in myxedema, cretinism or after thyroidectomy, 
which no other iodine preparation is capable of producing. 



384 HALOIDS OR HALOGENS 

Toxicology. Intravenous doses slow the heart and lower blood 
pressure bj stimulating the vagus center. Continuous full doses 
produce a group of symptoms (thyroidism) : These are anemia, 
emaciation, loss of appetite, muscular weakness, tremors, nervousness, 
acceleration of the pulse associated frequently with palpitation, in- 
crease in temperature believed to be due to increase in metabolism 
and, somtimes, bulging of the eyes. The effects are similar to those 
of exophthalmic goiter. 

Uses. 

1. In colloid goiter. 

2. Rachitis and osteomalacia, and delayed union of fracture. 

3. After complete thyroidectomy. 

4. In conditions in which it is believed there is an insufficient 
secretion of the thyroids. 

5. In myxedema and cretinism of man. 

ANTITHYROID PREPARATIONS 

These agents are recommended to overcome a hyperactivity of 
the thyroids. Most common are: 

* Beebe's Serum. The serum from animals whose thyroids 
have been removed. 

* Thyroidectin. (Capsulw Antithyroidew) . 

Gelatin capsules each containing 0.33 (5 grains) of a powder 
prepared from the dried blood of thyroidectomized animals. Dose, 
human, or dog. — One or two capsules daily according to need. P. D. 
and Co. 

* Antithyroidin — Mcebius. The serum of sheep from blood 
drawn at least six weeks after the removal of the thyroids, preserved 
by the addition of 0.5 per cent, of phenol. Dose for dog, 0.5 — 1 mil, 
(8 — 15 minims) three times daily, increasing gradually if necessary. 

These preparations are not often used in veterinary medicine. 
* Unofficial. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

GROUP OF ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 
ARSENUM — ARSENIC 

The metal is not used in medicine. 

ARSENI TRIOXIDUM — ARSENIC TRIOXIDE 

Synonyms. White Arsenic, Arsenous Acid, Arsenous Oxide 

Arsenic trioxide occurs either as an opaque, white powder, or in 
irregular masses of two varieties: one, amorphous, transparent and 
colorless like glass (glassy) ; the other, crystalline, opaque, and white, 
resembling porcelain (porcelain). Both varieties are odorless, taste- 
less, soluble in 30 parts of water (glassy) 100 parts (porcelain), in 
15 parts of boiling water, slightly soluble in alcohol and ether, and 
freely soluble in glycerin and in hydrochloric acid and alkaline solu- 
tions. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Arseni Trioxidum. H. and C. Tonic gr. iij — v; 0.2 — 0.3. 
Vermicide. H. gr. vij — xv;0.5 — 1. Sh. and Sw. gr. %o — 
j ; 0.006—0.06. Dog gr. Yeo—Yio ; 0.001—0.006. 

Liquor Acidi Arsenosi. Solution of arsenous acid. A 1 per 
cent, solution in water and hydrochloric acid. It is especially useful 
in preparations where Fowler's solution would be incompatible. 

Doses. H. and C. 3 ij— viij; 8—30. Sheep and Pig. ITL 
xv — x l v; i. — 3. Dog. TH, j — x; .06 — 0.6. Three times 
daily. 

Liquor Potassii Arsenitis. Solution of Potassium Arsenite, Fow- 
ler's Solution of Arsenic. This is a 1 per cent, solution in water and 
potassium bicarbonate, flavored and colored with compound tincture 
of lavender. Doses are the same as for the above. 

Liquor Arseni et Hydrargyri Iodidi. Solution of Arsenous and 
Mercuric iodides. Donovan's Solution. One per cent, solution of 
each iodide in water. Doses the same as above preparations. 

SODII ARSENAS — SODIUM ARSENATE 

Sodium Arsenate occurs as colorless, transparent, monoclinic 
prisms, odorless, and having a mild alkaline taste ; efflorescent in dry 

385 



386 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

and somewhat deliquescent in moist air; soluble in 1.2 parts of 
water, slightly soluble in alcohol. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Sodii Arsenas. H. gr. iij — vij ; 0.2 — 0.5. D. gr. %4 — V\2 ', 
0.001—0.005. 

Sodii Arsenas Exsiccatus — Dried Sodium Arsenate. The same 
as the above salt with the water of crystallization driven off. About 
twice the strength of the preceding. It occurs as an amorphous 
white powder, odorless, and having a mild alkaline taste. Per- 
manent in dry air. Soluble in 3 parts of cold water, freely soluble 
in boiling water, sparingly soluble in alcohol. Doses, one-half those 
of the preceding salt. 

Liquor Sodii Arsenalis, Solution of Sodium Arsenate, Pearson's 
Solution. One per cent, solution of exsiccated sodium arsenate in 
water. Doses, same as for Fowler's solution. 

External and Local Action. Arsenic is antiseptic but is too 
toxic to be used for this purpose, although it is used to retard post- 
mortem changes and in dilute solution as a parasiticide. (Dip for 
sheep.) It is not absorbed from the skin when in dilute solution, 
but there is reason to believe that it may be absorbed when in con- 
centrated solution. Arsenic is irritant to mucous membranes and 
raw surfaces, causing painful destruction of the tissue and if applied 
over large surfaces or packed in wounds and cavities it may be 
absorbed sufficiently to cause poisoning. 

Digestive System. It is generally believed that small doses of 
arsenic stimulate the appetite and digestion. Large doses are irri- 
tant, causing nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. The 
irritant effects appear to be produced after absorption, because they 
occur late and even after the drug has been administered subcutan- 
eously. Large hypodermic doses cause edema of the intestines on 
account of increased permeability of the capillaries, together with 
degeneration and exfoliation of the intestinal epithelium. 

Circulatory System. Therapeutic doses may slightly increase 
the pulse rate., Larger therapeutic doses tend, after a few days, to 
cause edema of the skin and digestive tract, as shown by puffiness 
around the eyes or other parts of the body, or by general dropsy, 
nausea, or diarrhea. This is believed to be due to an increased per- 
meability of the capillaries. The blood pressure is little influenced 
by therapeutic doses but may fall after toxic ones on account of the 
loss of serum by transudation. 

Blood. Arsenic appears to show its most valuable action upon 
the blood and blood forming organs. When administered for long 
periods to young growing animals, the bone marrow becomes more 
vascular, with an increase in the leucocytic elements, decrease in 
fat, and little if any change in the erythrocytic elements (Charteris). 



ARSENI TRIOXIDUM — ARSENIC 387 

There is no change in the number of red cells or in the percentage 
of hemoglobin in the blood. Charteris found, " From repeated 
doses large enough to produce cachexia and emaciation in rabbits, the 
bone marrow undergoes hyaline degeneration accompanied by a de- 
crease in the red cells and hemoglobin.'"' 

' Arsenic, therefore, tends to increase the leucocytic forming ele- 
ments of the bone marrow and the leucocytes in the blood, but in 
serious cases of chronic poisoning, it causes degeneration of the 
marrow cells, wasting and anemia. It often increases the number 
of red cells in pernicious anemia of man and diminishes the num- 
ber of leucocytes in leukemia. How this action is accomplished can- 
not be stated, but some suggest that it may act upon a parasite or 
toxin. 

Nervous System. Clinical experience indicates that arsenic, 
in therapeutic doses, is a stimulant to the nervous system. Nervous 
disturbances occur in both acute and chronic poisoning, but more 
especially in the latter. The paralysis is usually a polyneuritis, 
similar to that caused by other poisons, although a few cases of 
spinal paralysis have been observed. 

Bone. In young growing animals in poor condition, arsenic 
tends to increase the density of the bone. There is no reason to be- 
lieve that it has any such action in adults. 

Metabolism. There is a general belief that medicinal doses of 
arsenic will favorably influence nutrition, but this action cannot be 
explained except for the fact that the capillaries of the splanchnic 
area are rendered more permeable. Toxic doses increase proteid 
disintegration, increase the output of nitrogen, lessen oxidation and 
cause fatty degeneration of the epithelium of the digestive tract, 
liver, heart and kidneys. 

Absorption and Elimination. Absorption is fairly rapid 
from the stomach and intestines if the drug is in solution. Elim- 
ination is slow. Most of the drug passes out by the kidneys, but 
small amounts are excreted by most of the other excretions. 

Skin. Arsenic has a beneficial action upon the skin. In man 
this is shown by an increase of subcutaneous fat and improvement of 
the complexion. It also renders the coat of animals thicker and 
more glossy. Its action here cannot be explained, although two 
theories have been advanced. 1. That it has a specific action upon 
the skin during its excretion, or 2, that it may increase the lymph 
flow to the part. There is considerable evidence which would sup- 
port either theory.' There is a tendency to pigmentation of the skin 
from long use of the drug. 

Tolerance. The system may be educated to stand large doses 
of arsenic if the drug is started in small doses, and gradually in- 
creased. After being so treated for a number of days, often months, 
it is found that animals will show no physiological reaction to doses 



388 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

several times the toxic ones. Sometimes animals become immune 
from long continued closing and " arsenic eaters " are very tolerant to 
it. This acquired immunity from doses by the digestive tract is prob- 
ably due to an acquired resistance to absorption, because such ani- 
mals are no more resistant to its administration subcutaneously than 
others not previously treated. 

Toxicology. Arsenic poisoning is one of the most common 
found in veterinary practice. It may be caused by the injudicious 
use of the drug by the laity, may be administered with intent to 
kill, may be due to careless use of arsenical mange dips, where ani- 
mals are allowed to drain on the forage, to pasturing in orchards in 
which the trees have been sprayed with arsenical preparations, or to 
pasturing on land in the region of smelters, in which case the ar- 
senic is deposited on the forage and is taken in by the animals; or 
it may be due to carelessness with arsenical preparations used as 
insecticides, or in rat poisons. 

According to Law, the toxic dose for the horse is 140 grains in 
solution or 3% drams in powder, cattle 3% drams to 1 drams, sheep, 
2 drams, dogs, 2 grains, but they may recover from larger doses 
because the larger amounts cause emesis. Hogs may die after re- 
ceiving 15 grains, but, as in case of dogs, may recover from larger 
ones. 

Poisoning from arsenic may be either acute or chronic. 

Acute Poisoning. The symptoms of acute arsenic poisoning 
are violent colic, weak, irregular, rapid respirations, emesis in vomit- 
ing animals, great thirst, violent purging, cold extremities, nervous 
disturbances consisting of stupor, trembling, convulsions or paraly- 
sis. Acute poisoning points to a very rapid absorption because it 
sets in early. The first noticed symptom is violent gastroenteritis 
which so closely resembles that of corrosive poisoning that it was 
formerly believed to be due to the corrosive action of arsenic. The 
action of arsenic, however, is not strictly local because subcutaneous 
doses or intravenous doses will produce the same lesions in the 
gastrointestinal tract as when administered by mouth. Further- 
more, arsenic preparations do not form compounds with the pro- 
teids, analogous to those of the heavy metals and require a certain 
period before their action is seen, while corrosives produce their 
effects at once. On account of the above facts, it is generally believed 
that the action of arsenic is due largely to its effects after absorp- 
tion. 

Blood pressure falls at the beginning of symptoms of poisoning, 
due probably to a dilatation of the blood vessels. This is shown by 
the fact that if the aorta is clamped, the heart will keep up a good 
pressure. The paralysis is believed to be in the capillaries, because 
the arterioles will stili contract if the peripheral stump of the splanch- 



ARSENI TRIOXIDUM — ARSENIC 389 

nic nerve is stimulated. The heart becomes rapid, weak and irregu- 
lar and the vasomotor center depressed. 

Sollmann says, " These changes in the capillaries explain prac- 
tically the whole course of the poisoning. Since increased per- 
meability of the capillaries is one of the essential features of in- 
flammation, one need not be surprised that the phenomena of ar- 
senic-poisoning are similar to those produced by an irritating in- 
flammation, although the primal cause is different." The paralysis 
of the capillaries causes an exudation of serum into the connective 
tissues. The accumulation of serum raises blisters beneath the 
mucosa which is soon thrown off as shreds or false membranes, 
together with large amounts of serum into the stomach and intes- 
tines, causing the so-called " rice water stools " of people. 

The prolonged gastroenteritis is usually the cause of death. 

Chronic Poisoning. Chronic poisoning in animals usually re- 
sults from the continued faulty dosing with arsenic ; or in herbivora, 
by grazing upon pastures upon which arsenic has been deposited by 
vapors from smelters. 

Symptoms. Here we get a chronic gastrointestinal catarrh, 
emaciation, hidebound, diarrhea, muscular weakness, paralysis, sore- 
ness of the gums, swelling of the eyelids, salivation, and eruption on 
the skin. The milder but persistent action upon the capillaries 
gives time for more marked degenerative changes in the body, promi- 
nent among which are fatty degeneration of the endothelium of the 
capillaries themselves, followed by the same changes in the liver, 
heart, kidneys and muscles. In this type of poisoning there is a 
tendency toward local effusions, particularly swelling of the eyelids, 
which is quite characteristic. 

Lesions. These consist of inflammation of the gastro-intestinal 
tract, with ropy, bloody mucus. There may be ecchymoses or blood 
in the stomach. The presence of large amounts of fluid and shreds 
of mucus or false membranes with the absence of corrosion is char- 
acteristic. Ulceration is not commonly found in cases of acute 
poisoning, but may be found in the chronic. Petechise may be seen 
in the internal organs in acute poisoning and fatty degeneration in 
the chronic. 

Diagnosis. The diagnosis of acute poisoning is based upon 
the violent gastroenteritis, distinguished from that of acids and 
alkalies by the history, absence of corrosion of the stomach and less 
prominent local symptoms. The rapid onset distinguishes it from 
poisoning by all other metals. The chronic poisoning is difficult 
to diagnose because it may be confused with chronic lead poisoning ; 
consequently chemical examination of the organs is the only method 
of making a positive diagnosis. 

Treatment of Acute Type. Use emetics or stomach tube and 



390 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

follow with purgatives. The antidotes are magnesium oxide, dog, 
gr. vij — xv ; horse and cow, oiv— v, every 10 or 15 minutes. Pow- 
dered iron or water in which hot irons have been cooled are also 
useful. The symptomatic treatment consists of the administration 
of mucilaginous drinks to retard absorption, and stimulants such as 
strychnine, camphor, etc., to combat the weakness and paralysis. 
Ferri Hydroxidum cum Magnesii Oxido (see under iron salts) has 
long been considered antidotal, by forming insoluble salts. It 
should be freshly prepared and administered ad libitum. More re- 
cently, one investigator at least, DeBuscher, believes that the com- 
pound formed by this agent is more soluble than arsenic trioxide and 
that it is valueless. The treatment for chronic poisoning is the same 
as for that of lead, which see page 424. It includes the administra- 
tion of potassium iodide in large doses and symptomatic treatment of 
the patient. 

Therapeutics. Externally. Arsenic trioxide is used exter- 
nally for the following purposes : 

1. Caustic and escharotic. For this purpose it is usually made 
into a paste and used to remove superficial tumors. Its action is 
slow and extremely painful. Furthermore, there may be some dan- 
ger from absorption if it is packed into large cavities. 

2. Parasiticide for mange mites of sheep. It is usually em- 
ployed in the form of a dip. Law recommends the following: 
" Arsenic trioxide 20 lbs., soda ash 20 lbs., soft soap 4 lbs. ; these are 
dissolved in four gallons of boiling water, then enough cool water is 
added to make 50 gallons, which will suffice for 50 sheep." The 
compound is worked into the wool for 3 minutes. The wool is 
then wrung out and the sheep made to stand on an incline for further 
dripping, and are finally turned into a bare lot to dry. The ar- 
senical dips are so extremely dangerous and require such careful 
attention that they have been largely replaced by others. 

Internally. Arsenic has been used internally for a variety of 
conditions : anemia, chronic dyspepsia, rickets, osteomalacia, chorea, 
heaves and vermicide for horses. 

1. Diseases of the blood and blood forming organs. Arsenic is 
probably the next best drug to iron in anemia and often gives tem- 
porary improvement in cases of pernicious anemia of man. It is 
often serviceable in leukemia and Hodgkin's disease. 

2. Diseases of bones and joints. It is often useful in rachitis, 
osteomalacia and chronic rheumatism. 

3. Chorea and nervous disturbances. The drug is often service- 
able in the so-called " chorea " of dogs, but is by no means a specific 
for this condition. It is generally administered in ascending doses 
until saturation occurs, it is then omitted for a few days and then 
repeated. 

4. Vermicide for horses. When given in about three or four 



ARSENI TRIOXIDUM — ARSENIC 391 

times the average dose, arsenic is very serviceable as a vermicide for 
round worms in horses. After daily administration of large doses 
for 6 to 8 days it should be followed by a purgative dose of linseed 
oil, to which two ounces of oil of turpentine have been added. 

5. Shin diseases. Arsenic is useful in chronic non-parasitic 
skin diseases, but is contraindicated in the acute. Quitman recom- 
mended " Fowler's Solution," internally and locally, for warts in the 
mouth and upon the muzzle of horses and dogs. 

6. Tonic and alterative. Small doses of arsenic are recom- 
mended in any case of debility. 

7. Heaves. Arsenical preparations are useful in heaves of 
horses, but animals require rather large doses. It will relieve the 
symptoms but will not cure the disease. 

Administration. The trioxide is usually combined with iron 
and strychnine or mix vomica, and administered as a pill or in 
solution to small animals, or as a solution or powder to the large 
ones. 

It is a common practice to use the liquid preparations of arsenic 
in ascending doses until saturation is shown; that is, to start with 
small doses and increase each day until saturation occurs, as is shown 
by swelling and itching of the eyelids. Fowler's Solution (Liquor 
Potassii Arsenitis) is most useful, but it is incompatible with solu- 
tions of strychnine or other alkaloids or acids and consequently the 
acid preparation of the same strength (Liquor Acidi Arsenosi) 
should be used in such cases. 

The following prescriptions illustrate the uses of arsenic : 

Anemia — Horse. 

R Arseni Trioxidi gr. ij-iij 

Ferri Sulphatis Exsiccati. 

Potassii Nitratis aa. 3 j 

Nucis Vomicae 3 S s 

M. Ft. Pulver. 

Sig. One powder two or three times daily in feed. 

Arsenic Paste. 

R Arseni Trioxidi. 

Acacise aa . 3 ij 

Solutionis Cocaime 4 per cent. q. s. 
M. Ft. Pasts. 
Sig. Apply to wart, or small tumor. 

Worms — Horse. 

B Ferri Sulphatis Exsiccati 3 j-ij 

Nucis Vomica? „ 3 ss 

Nucis Arecse 3 ij 

Arseni Trioxidi ffr x 

M. Ft. Pulver. 

Sig. One in morning, for 8-10 days. Follow with a purge. 



392 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

Anemia — Horse. 

B Liquoris Acidi Arsenosi 3 ij 

Strychninse Sulphatis gr. j 

Tincturse Ferri Chloridi 3 j 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 ss 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Give at one dose. Repeat three times daily. 

Anemia — Dog. 

ty Ferri Reducti gr. j 

Zinci Phosphidi gr. Vi6 

Strychninse Sulphatis gr. H20 

Sodii Arsenatis gr. %o 

M. Ft. Pilula. 

Sig. One three times daily. 



OTHER PREPARATIONS OF ARSENIC 

Arseni lodidum. Arsenic Iodide occurs as orange red, glossy 
crystals, having the odor and taste of iodine. It is soluble in water 
and alcohol. Doses. H. gr. ij — vij ; 0.13 — 0.5. Dog, gr. %o — ' 
Yio ; 0.001 — 0.0064. This preparation has been used as an alter- 
ative but is not often employed in veterinary medicine. 

Cupri Arsenis. Copper arsenite is a yellowish green, crystal- 
line powder, slowly soluble in water, known as Paris Green or 
Sclieele's Green. It is occasionally used as an intestinal antiseptic 
in diarrhea, but is of more importance on account of its toxic action. 

Sodium Arsenilate. This is proprietary under the name of 
Atoxyol. It occurs as a white, odorless powder, or crystals, soluble 
in water. It is claimed to be one-fortieth as toxic as arsenic tri- 
oxide. Atoxyol has been recommended as a substitute for arsenic 
in many diseases, anemia, etc., and as a specific for diseases caused 
by trypanosomes, surra, etc. It is also reported as serviceable in the 
treatment of sclerestomum tetracanthum in foals. 

Doses. Horse, gr. vij — xv ; 0.5 — 1. Dog, gr. % — iij ; 0.02 
— 0.2, gradually increased. It should be given subcutan- 
eously. 

Arsacetin. Sodium Acetyl Arsenilate. This preparation is 
claimed to be less toxic than atoxyol, to keep well and to stand boiling 
without decomposition. Its uses and doses are practically identical 
with the preceding drug. 

Cacodylic Acid. Dimethyl arsenic acid, is official as 
Sodium Cacodylas (Sodium Cacodylate). It is a white powder, 
soluble in water. 

Doses. H. gr. xxx — lx ; 2. — 4. Average gr. xlv; 3.0. 
D. gr. j — iij ; 0.065 — 0.2. Average gr. 1%. 



SALVARSAN — NEO-SALVARSAN 393 

The action and uses are very similar to those of the other ar- 
senic preparations. It is claimed to be less toxic than arsenic, as 
are the preceding drugs, but the diminished toxicity is due to the 
facts that they contain less arsenic, the arsenic is slowly eliminated, 
and they are not so easily dissociable. Whatever benefit they pos- 
sess is believed to be due to the slow liberation of arsenic. 

Sodium cacodylate has been recommended for numerous condi- 
tions in human practice, such as psoriasis, syphilis, pseudo-leukemia, 
etc. More recently it has been recommended in veterinary medi- 
cine for distemper of dogs, and for influenza, contagious pleuro- 
pneumonia and other infectious fevers of horses. 

Administration. Sodium cacodylate may be given in solution, 
though almost any method of administration may be used. It is 
usually given subcutaneously or intratracheally in horses and hypo- 
dermically in dogs. It may be purchased in ampules ready for ad- 
ministration to small animals, or may be made into solution. It is 
usually given about every other day. The following formula will 
serve as a working basis for preparing solutions of the drug, suitable 
for hypodermic or intratracheal medication: 

R Sodii Cacodylatis gr. xc 

Phenolis TH. j 

Aqua Dest. Steril q. s . . ■. ad. 3 ij 

M. Ft. Solutio. Boil and filter through a sterile filter. 

Each mil (15 minims) contains approximately 1% grains of the 
drug. 

* Salvarsan. Ehrlich's 606 — Arsenphenol- Amine-Hydrochlo- 
ride. This is a bright yellow powder of strongly acid reaction and 
soluble slowly in 10 parts of water. It may be used subcutaneously 
or intramuscularly but is recommended especially for intravenous 
administration. It must be made into a- fresh neutral or slightly 
alkaline solution before administration. It is very oxidizable so is 
kept " in vacuo " or in ampules filled with an indifferent gas. To 
prepare it for intravenous use, dissolve it in the proportion of 10 
grains in 300 mils of physiological salt solution, to which 23 drops 
of a 15 per cent, solution of caustic soda have been added. 

* Neo-Salvarsan. This is salvarsan so treated that it is soluble 
in water and neutral in reaction, so that it does not require the addi- 
tion of an alkali. It, therefore, requires less attention in preparing 
doses. 

Doses. H. and C. oxlv — lxxv; 3. — 5. Dog, gr. v — x; 0.3 
—0.6. 

The two above preparations were brought into prominence for 
the treatment of syphilis in man, but have been used by a number 
* Unofficial. 



394 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

of veterinarians in Germany. It is claimed that they may be in- 
jected in 15 per cent, solution, hypodermically, intramuscularly or 
intravenously. The last method is preferable because there is con- 
siderable pain and swelling with possible abscess formation when 
used otherwise. 

They have been especially recommended in pleuro-pneumonia 
and petechial fever of horses. In the former, if given on the second 
or third day before pronounced changes have taken place in the or- 
gans, there may be an increase of temperature for a few hours after 
administration, but within 24 hours the temperature drops and the 
animal is improved. Stodtler, reporting on the use of the drug, 
states that the death rate fell from 5 — 20 per cent, to tio of one per 
cent. In petechial fever the results were also good. 

ANTIMONIUM — ANTIMONY 

Tartar emetic is the only official salt of antimony used in medi- 
cine. Besides this there are the chloride, sulphide and oxide. The 
action of antimony is quite similar to that of arsenic. The most 
marked differences are that it is less easily absorbed and causes more 
local irritation. On account of this irritant action, when given by 
the mouth to animals which vomit, it is an emetic. Vomiting is 
always a prominent symptom, no matter how the drug may be given. 

ANTIMONII ET POTASSII TARTRAS 

Synonym. Tartar Emetic 

Tartar emetic occurs as colorless crystals or white powder, hav- 
ing a metallic sweetish taste. It is soluble in 15.5 parts of water, 
but insoluble in alcohol. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Antimonii et Potassii Tartras. Expectorant. H. and 

C. oss— j; 2—4. Dog, gr. % — 1 / 2 o; .002— .003. 

Emetic. D. gr, j — iij ; 0.065 — 0.2. Cat, gr. ss — j ; 

0.032 — 0.065. Hog, gr. iv— x; 0.25 — 0.65. Vermicide. 

IT. oij — v; 8. — 20. Ruminatorium. C. 5ij — iv; 8. — 15. 
* Vinum Antimonii. Doses. Dog, exp. Til x — xx; emetic, 

oj — iv. Contains 4 parts of tartar emetic to 1000. 
Syrupus 8 cilice Compositus (Hive syrup) 

Contains in 100 mils: 

Squills 8.0 Gm. 

Senega , 8.0 Gm. 

Tartar emetic 0.2 Gm. 

Action. Besides having an action similar to arsenic there are 
some facts that should be brought out. 

Externally. Applied to the skin as an ointment it produces 
* Unofficial. 



ANTIMONII ET POTASSII TARTRAS 395 

papules, vesicles, and pustules, and diffuse abscesses if the applica- 
tion is long continued. 

Internally. Tartar emetic is an einetic, expectorant and ver- 
micide. If given in fair doses (1 — 3 grains) to a dog, there is an 
increase in secretions from the salivary and bronchial glands and 
emesis in from 5 to 15 minutes. The action is persistent and is 
accompanied by much nausea and followed by depression. In 
smaller doses it acts as an expectorant. It is generally believed that 
there is no direct action upon the glands of the bronchi but that the 
action is due to a slight nausea caused by a direct irritant action 
upon the walls of the stomach. The emesis is probably also due 
entirely to local irritant action upon the walls of the stomach, 
although some writers believe that there is some action upon the 
vomiting center, since it will produce emesis if given subcutaneously 
or intravenously ; but Dixon says, " If the drug is introduced sub- 
cutaneously vomiting is still induced, in which case not only are 
larger doses required, but it takes longer to act. This forms a con- 
clusive proof of its peripheral action, and there is no reason to sup- 
pose that it has any direct action upon the center." 

Horses do not vomit and stand relatively large doses. Cattle 
may show active movements of the rumen and may vomit after large 
doses. Tor this reason it has been used as a stimulant for that 
organ. 

Large doses cause violent abdominal pain, watery discharges from 
the bowels, collapse and death. 

Absorption and Elimination. Absorption is very slow but is 
sufficient if the drug is long continued to cause effects similar to 
chronic arsenical poisoning. It is largely eliminated by the stomach 
and intestines, but small amounts escape by the kidneys, skin and 
respiratory tract. 

Treatment Of Poisoning. This consists of administering tan- 
nic acid as the antidote. Demulcents are also indicated. Treat the 
collapse or threatened collapse with stimulants. 

Summary of Action. Emetic, expectorant, vermicide, irri- 
tant. 

Therapeutics. 1. Expectorant. It is an efficient expectorant 
in acute bronchitis with hard cough and scanty secretions. It is 
very serviceable here since the expectorant dose is much smaller than 
that required for emesis. 

2. Emetic. It is a very marked emetic, but is not often used 
because it produces so much prostration and is comparatively slow 
in action. 

3. Vermicide. Especially for round worms of horses. Eor this 
purpose 4 or 5 drams are dissolved in a pail of water and adminis- 
tered to the animal upon an empty stomach as follows, % at 6 a. m., 
Ys at 8 a. m., and the rest at 9 a. m. (Grimme.) 



396 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

4. Ruminatorium. Especially for impactions and paralysis of 
the rumen of cattle. 

5. Trypanosome diseases. Dixon states that it possesses a re- 
markably toxic action upon trypanosomes when administered sub- 
cutaneously. 

6. Externally it is too violent for use. 

Expectorant — Horse. 
R Ammonii Chloridi. 

Antimonii et Potassii Tartratis aa 3 xvj 

M. Ft. Chart* No. 16. 

Sig. One morning and night on feed or in water. 

or 

B Ammonii Chloridi. 

Antimonii et Potassii Tartratis aa. 3 ij 

Liquoris Ammonii Acetatis § viij 

Syrupi q. s ad. 3 xvj 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. One ounce doses two or three times daily for horse or cow. 

Acute Bronchitis in Dog. 

Ifc Ammonii Chloridi 3 ij 

Antimonii et Potassii Tartratis gr. ij 

Syrupi Tolutani q. s ad. 3 iv 

M. Ft. Syrupus. 

Sig. Teaspoonful every two or three hours. 

or 

fy Ammonii Chloridi gr. j 

Antimonii et Potassii Tartratis gr. %o 

Sanguinarise Nitratis gr. Moo 

Extracti GlycyrrhizsB gr. jss 

M. et. Ft. Pilula. 

Sig. One pill every two hours. 

PHOSPHORUS 

Phosphorus exists in two forms, the red and the yellow. The 
red is not volatile, is insoluble in water and fats, is not absorbed and 
consequently is nontoxic. The yellow is the ordinary variety used. 
It is soluble in oils, very volatile, and easily absorbed if in a fine 
state of division or in solution in fats. 

PHOSPHORUS — U. S. P. 

Properties. Translucent, almost colorless solid, of a waxy lus- 
ter, and at ordinary temperatures is about the consistency of bees- 
wax. It has a disagreeable odor and taste and when exposed to the 
air gives off white fumes which are luminous in the dark, and of 
a garlicky odor. One gram dissolves in about 400 mils of dehy- 
drated alcohol, about 17 mils of chloroform, 102 mils of absolute 





Fig. 22. 

Section of head of the femur in a calf. A, normal: B, after treatment with 
minute doses of phosphorus; C, cap of dense bone at the growing point. 
(After Wegner.) Reproduced, by permission, from Cushny, Pharmacology 
and Therapeutics, published by Lea and Febiger. 



PHOSPHORUS 397 

ether, 315 mils of benzene, and in 0.9 mil of carbon disulphide, 
sparingly soluble in fixed oils. It is almost insoluble in water, to 
which it imparts its disagreeable odor and taste. On long exposure 
to air it takes fire spontaneously. 
Preparations and Doses. 

Phosphorus. H. and C. gr. % — j; 0.01 — 0.06. Dog, gr. 
_ Koo— ho ; 0.006— .003. 

Pilulce Phosphori, %oo grain each. 

*Oleum Phosphor atum, 1 per cent, phosphorated oil. This 
was formerly official but has been discarded on account of 
deterioration. It is best to prescribe phosphorus in an 
extemporaneous solution. 

Action. The chief effects from small or therapeutic doses were 
demonstrated by Wegner, who found that if administered to growing 
animals it rendered the bones more dense, diminished the cancellous 
structure and in time tended to diminish or obliterate the marrow 
cavity. That these changes are due to a stimulation of the bone- 
forming tissues and not to a deposit of an excess of the calcium salts 
was shown by the fact that in animals fed phosphorus, but deprived 
of calcium, there was the same increased activity of bone-forming 
cells, but no lime was deposited, so that the bone was soft and of a 
rachitic appearance. 

With the exception of the changes produced in the bones and 
possibly some effect upon the red blood corpuscles, the effect of phos- 
phorus in medicinal doses is not marked. There is some clinical 
evidence, however, that it stimulates or improves the tone of the ner- 
vous system. 

Toxicology. The effects from phosphorus do not take place for 
several hours and are first shown by intense abdominal pain (colic) 
and profuse vomiting. The vomitus is luminous in the dark and 
has a garlicy odor. Following these symptoms the patient usually 
feels much better (after 24 to 36 hours) and will be apparently nor- 
mal for 3 or 4 days. Then the symptoms recur. The patient is 
icteric, liver congested and tender, pulse very quick and feeble, urine 
scanty and contains bile, tube casts and albumen, increased amounts 
of ammonia and sometimes sarcolactic acid, leucin, ty rosin and sugar. 
This condition will last for several days or until the patient dies 
from heart failure, although he may recover from serious attacks. 

Autopsy. The changes found upon autopsy are usually consid- 
ered as due to changes in metabolism instead of to direct action. 
Fatty degeneration is widespread, especially in the glands of the 
stomach and intestines, in the liver, muscles and heart. Ecchymoses 
are often present and necrotic areas are frequently found in the liver 
and stomach. 
* Unofficial. 



398 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

Chronic poisoning. This was very common to workers in match 
factories, and was called " Phosphor ism." It is characterized by 
loss of flesh, anemia, garlicky breath, chronic diarrhea, albuminuria, 
fragility of the bones, and necrosis of the maxillary bones, which, 
however, probably never occurs unless the teeth are carious. 

Treatment. This should be aimed at removing as much as pos- 
sible of the phosphorus and oxidizing the remainder. If the patient 
is seen soon after ingestion, empty the stomach with copper sulphate 
(30 grains to 2 ounces of water) as an emetic, then administer two 
or three ounces of a weaker solution (30 grains to the pint of water) 
to coat any remaining phosphorus with metallic copper, which is 
soon converted into the insoluble phosphide. Follow this with a 
cathartic to remove any unabsorbed phosphorus which may have 
reached the intestines. Potassium permanganate may be used in the 
same manner, washing the stomach with a 0.1 — 0.2 per cent, solu- 
tion, followed by about 5 grains of the drug in eight ounces of water. 
Hydrogen peroxide may be used in an emergency but since it is so 
easily decomposed on contact with the body fluids and mucous mem- 
branes it can only act by coming in direct contact with the phos- 
phorus. French oil of turpentine has been recommended, but this 
is almost impossible to obtain, and the ordinary commercial variety 
is valueless. All oils and fats should be avoided, as they increase 
the solubility of the drug. 

Therapeutics. 1. Diseases of Bones. The only logical use of 
phosphorus in medicine is in rickets, and osteomalacia, where it is 
recommended as a specific by some, but of doubtful value by others. 
It is best given in cod liver oil, but may be given in olive or cotton- 
seed oil. There is some evidence that it will hasten the callous for- 
mation in delayed union of bones. 

2. Nerve tonic and aphrodisiac. There are no grounds for its 
use in these conditions, although there is some clinical evidence that 
it may be of some value in nervous disorders dependent upon ex- 
haustion and not to organic changes, neurasthenia, impotence from 
excess, etc. 

Administration. Use only freshly prepared solutions in oil or 
in keratin coated pills, as it undergoes oxidation very promptly upon 
standing. 

* ZINC PHOSPHIDUM — ZINC PHOSPHIDE 

Properties : Dark grayish gritty powder or crystalline metallic 
fragments, having a faint phosphorus-like odor and taste. It is 
soluble in alcohol and water. 

Doses. Dog, gr. V^— Mo; .0016— .0065. 

Action and Uses. Very similar to those of phosphorus. 

* Unofficial. 



HYPOPHOSPHITES AND GLYCEROPHOSPHATES 399 

ACIDUM PHOSPHORICUM 

This is a colorless liquid, containing 85 per cent, by weight of 
absolute orthophosphoric acid and 15 per cent, of water. Its action 
is like that of tlie dilute mineral acids and not at all like that of 
phosphorus. (See mineral acids.) 

* CALCIUM PHOSPHA8 PRiECIPITATUS 

White, odorless, tasteless, amorphous powder, almost insoluble in 
water. 

Doses. H. 5j— ij ; 30.— 60. D. oss— ijss ; 2.— 10. 

Preparation. Syrupus Calcii Lactophosphatis. 

Action. Calcium phosphate has very little if any action. It is 
but sparingly absorbed and is largely eliminated by the bowels. It 
has been recommended on theoretical grounds for rachitis, etc., but 
is of doubtful value. 

HYPOPHOSPHITES 

The hypophosphites of calcium, sodium, potassium, strychnine, 
quinine, etc., have been used as nerve tonics on the theory that they 
furnish phosphorus to the nervous tissues. They are of doubtful 
value and probably of no value at all since they pass through the 
system unchanged and may be recovered from the urine as the hypo- 
phosphites. 

They were frequently prescribed and were official as the syrup 
(Syrupus Hypophosphitum) containing 4.5 per cent, of calcium 
hypophosphite, 1.5 per cent, each of sodium and potassium hypo- 
phosphite, 0.2 per cent, of diluted hypophosphorus acid with glycerin, 
sugar and water, or as the compound syrup (Syrupus Hypophosphi- 
tum Compositus) containing 3.5 per cent, of calcium hypophosphite, 
1.7 per cent, each of potassium and sodium hypophosphites, 0.2 per 
cent, each of iron and manganese hypophosphites, 0.1 per cent, of 
quinine hypophosphite, 0.01 per cent, of strychnine hypophosphite, 
0.37 per cent, of sodium citrate, 1.5 per cent, of hypophosphorus acid, 
with sugar and water. Dose. Dog, 5j — ij ; 4 — 8. 

The syrup is probably an inert preparation, while it is gen- 
erallv believed that any benefit derived from the compound syrup was 
due to the iron, strychnine and quinine which it contained. The 
hypophosphites were also frequently prescribed with cod liver oil in 
the form of an emulsion — Emulsum Olei Morrhuse cum Hypo- 
phosphitibus. 

GLYCEROPHOSPHATES 

The glycerophosphates are the salts of glycerophosphoric acid. 
They exist as two classes : the primary or acid glycerophosphates and 

* Unofficial. 



400 ARSENIC, ANTIMONY AND PHOSPHORUS 

the secondary or normal glycerophosphates. The second variety is 
the one most used in medicine. Those of calcium and sodium are 
generally preferred. 

Calcii Glycerophosphas. Calcium Glycerophosphate occurs as 
a white, odorless and almost tasteless powder, soluble in water, al- 
most insoluble in boiling water, soluble in dilute acids but insoluble 
in alcohol or ether. Dose for the dog is 5 grains in powder, capsule 
or tablet. 

Sodii Glycerophosphas. Sodium Glycerophosphate occurs in 
white, monoclinic plates or scales, odorless, of a saline taste, soluble 
in water, insoluble in alcohol. Doses same as for the above. 

These salts were introduced in medicine as substitutes for the 
phosphates and hypophosphites, on the ground that they were more 
rapidly assimilated, since they more nearly resemble lecithin in com- 
position, than do the others. Their superiority has not been sub- 
stantiated experimentally or clinically and it is doubtful if they 
have any advantage over the inorganic phosphates in phosphorus 
metabolism. They are useful in exhaustion, slow or tardy con- 
valescence, and neurasthenia as " nerve tonics." 

LECITHIN 

Lecithin consists of glycerophosphoric acid and a fatty acid com- 
bined with choline. It contains about 4 per cent, of phosphorus. 
Lecithin is a constituent of plant and animal tissues, especially of 
nervous tissue and yolk of eggs. The lecithins vary somewhat in 
composition according to their source, but this does not appear to 
effect their action. Animals take in fairly large amounts of lecithin 
with their food and there is no evidence to show that small daily 
doses are necessary when a good diet is available. 

NUCLEIN 

Nucleins are combinations of proteids with nucleic acid and are 
derived from the nucleoproteids of cells. The term " nuclein " is 
often carelessly employed, being frequently used when nucleic acid 
is meant. Cells in general are rich in nucleoproteids. The best- 
known varieties are those obtained from wheat embryo and yeast. 
The composition of the nucleins of commerce varies greatly, accord- 
ing to their method of preparation, but the nucleic acids are definite 
complex chemical compounds. Nucleic acid from yeast, the usual 
commercial variety, contains about 10 per cent, of phosphorus. 

The nucleins and nucleic acids were introduced as remedies for 
tuberculosis in man. They have been claimed to increase the num- 
ber of white corpuscles and consequently were recommended in the 
treatment of infectious diseases, but their usefulness in these condi- 
tions is, at the most, questionable. They break down in the organ- 
ism into purine bases and phosphoric acid. 



CHAPTER XXV 
SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

In general the action of the salts of the heavy metals may be 
described as local and systemic or general. 

Local Action. With the exception of the salts of Arsenic and 
Antimony, the local action of the heavy metals is due to the fact that 
they form chemical compounds with the proteids of the tissues with 
which they come into contact. 

When solutions of dissociable salts of heavy metals are added to 
proteid solutions, a precipitate of the albuminate of the metal is 
formed. This precipitate may be a dense, tough, insoluble mass 
in some cases, or in others it may be less dense, and soluble in an 
excess of the proteid. (Salts of mercury.) Those which form in- 
soluble precipitates only destroy tissues when in strong concentra- 
tion and consequently serve as superficial caustics, while in dilute 
solutions they are astringents. On the other hand, those which 
penetrate deeply are powerful caustics but not astringents. 

The salts of the heavy metals produce their astringent action in 
one of three ways, according to Dixon - — " The soluble salts of the 
metals may form albuminates and liberate free acid ; the metal may 
be locally absorbed, so constricting the part, and reducing the secre- 
tions ; and lastly, insoluble salts like those of Bismuth may cover 
and mechanically protect the surface." 

The local action is largely due to the dissociated metal or 
metallic oxide ion, although the salts of the stronger acids owe part 
of their action to the acid set free when the salt combines with the 
proteid, because in this combination an albuminate is formed and 
the acid freed. This action is more noticeable when strong solutions 
are used and may be so pronounced as to make the action more irri- 
tant than astringent. 

A certain tolerance to the corrosive action may be acquired if 
small doses or weak solutions are used at first. This cannot be satis- 
factorily explained but may be well illustrated by the tolerance to 
arsenic of the arsenic eaters of Tyrol. 

All metallic salts are antiseptic, due to their power of coagulating 
the proteids of the bacterial cells. 

Systemic Action. This action depends upon the absorption of 
the metals into the body and the fact that they must be absorbed 
as the ion. Sollmann says, " All metals are practically equal in 

401 



402 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

toxic action provided they are introduced into the body. (The 
alimentary tract in this case is not within the body.) For instance 
the main difference in the toxicity of arsenic and iron is due to the 
fact that arsenic is easily absorbed and iron is not. With few excep- 
tions (arsenic, mercury, and uranium), there are no metals absorbed 
sufficiently rapid to cause acute poisoning, unless a corrosive dose 
has been given. Other metals, lead, silver, iron, are absorbed more 
slowly. As discussed under the local action, all metallic salts in 
strong solution produce corrosion of the digestive tract. They 
would therefore be absorbed and produce the general action, if the 
animal survived the local action." 

As in case of other substances, metals must be in a soluble form 
to be absorbed. This solubility does not mean that they must be 
given in soluble form, as it makes but very little if any difference 
in what form they are administered, because they will be converted 
into the insoluble chlorides in the stomach, the insoluble carbonates 
in the duodenum or into double salts with the proteids (albuminates) 
which are soluble in an excess of the proteids, in which condition 
they may be absorbed. They may also pass into the large intestine 
as the sulphide, escape absorption and render the feces black. 

The excretion of metallic salts is even slower than the absorption, 
so that they frequently accumulate in the body and cause chronic 
poisoning (cumulative action) when they have been taken for a 
sufficient time in too small amounts to cause immediate results. A 
single large dose may also cause chronic poisoning. The principal 
channel of elimination is by the digestive tract, no matter in what 
way they have been administered, although a small amount is ex- 
creted by the kidneys. The intestines may be irritated at the points 
of elimination, as is shown by diarrhea and enteritis. 

Sufficient amounts are eliminated by the kidneys to cause a 
marked nephritis, characterized by the ordinary phenomena of that 
condition. If the poisoning is of the chronic variety, there may be 
interstitial nephritis or cirrhosis of the kidneys. 

The systemic effect is very similar with all metals and consists 
of a fall in blood pressure due to paralysis of the blood vessels and to 
direct action upon the heart. This is followed by or attended with 
disturbances of the central nervous system. 

The local (astringent and irritant) effects of the salts of the 
heavy metals are used therapeutically, but the systemic action is 
of more importance from a toxicological standpoint. 

IRON 

Iron is an important constituent of the body and is essential for 
life of the higher plants and animals. It is found in animals par- 
ticularly in the hemoglobin of the blood and has a close relationship 
to the oxygen-carrying powers of the red blood cells. Since hemo- 



IRON 403 

globin is being constantly destroyed and eliminated as the coloring 
matter of the urine and feces, more iron must be absorbed to replace 
that which is cast off. Under normal conditions animals take a suffi- 
cient amount with the food to satisfy this want. 

Local Action. The local action of iron is similar to that of the 
other metals. The insoluble preparations have no effect upon the 
unbroken skin or upon the digestive tract, unless they are converted 
into soluble form by the secretions. Ferrous salts form soluble com- 
pounds with the proteids which are neither irritating nor corrosive, 
while the ferric salts precipitate the proteids in an insoluble form 
and are therefore irritant and astringent. The soluble salts are an- 
tiseptic and disinfectant on account of their action upon proteids. 

Internally. Iron is an astringent and may cause constipation. 
It forms loose compounds with the proteids of the digestive tract. It 
may be absorbed from different parts of the digestive tract, but 
chiefly from the duodenum. According to some authors, a portion 
of the iron is converted into the chloride by the hydrochloric acid 
of the gastric juice, in which form it combines with the proteids. 
Upon reaching the duodenum it is decomposed by the alkali into the 
carbonate. 

Absorption. Dixon says, " Whether the iron is present in a 
soluble or insoluble form, absorption of iron granules takes place 
through the epithelial cells. These granules are taken up by the 
leucocytes of the mucosa, and ultimately are carried into the portal 
vein, although some find their way into the mesenteric lymph 
glands." As in case of most other metals, iron is more rapidly ab- 
sorbed than eliminated. The excess is deposited in the liver, spleen 
and bone marrow until used or excreted. In the liver, iron exists as 
easily decomposed granules (ferratin). 

Excretion. Iron is mainly excreted by the bowels, but a small 
amount escapes in the urine. An excess of iron in the feces stains 
them black on account of the formation of sulphides or tannates due 
to the presence of hydrogen sulphide and ingesta with which it comes 
in contact. 

Hemoglobin. Under normal conditions enough iron is taken in 
the body with the food to supply what is needed and in such cases its 
administration will have no effect upon the hemoglobin or number of 
red cells. But, in anemias, iron will increase both the per cent, of 
hemoglobin and the number of red cells. There is no direct evidence 
to show whether iron supplies the necessary material for these 
processes, promotes absorption of iron or simply stimulates the blood- 
forming organs. 

Summary of Action. 

1. Locally iron is astringent, styptic and caustic. 

2. Internally, a. Iron stimulates hemoglobin formation and 



404 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

improvement of nutrition in certain anemic conditions, but not in 
health. 

b. It increases the reserve stock of hemoglobin. 

c. Iron has an arsenic-like action when injected intravenously, 
but this is unimportant from a therapeutic standpoint. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Locally. Tincture of the chloride of iron is used as an as- 
tringent and hemostatic ; the subsulphate, as a styptic and the sul- 
phate (copperas), as an antiseptic and disinfectant for cesspools, 
etc. 

2. Internally. The most important use of iron is in the treat- 
men of anemic conditions. It is especially useful in those cases in 
which the per cent, of hemoglobin is diminished. After severe 
hemorrhage the blood will return to normal much more rapidly under 
the influence of iron. It is of less value in secondary anemias than 
in primary and of doubtful value in pernicious anemia. Iron is 
contraindicated in conditions of gastric irritation. 

3. Antidote to arsenic poisoning. 

Administration. Preparations of iron are usually given per os 
and in order to prevent undue irritation of the stomach should be 
administered during or after feeding. Some of the organic prep- 
arations have been recommended because they are less irritant, but 
they are expensive and little better than the inorganic preparations. 
Reduced iron, the carbonate and sulphate are the least irritant of the 
inorganic preparations. They are usually administered to large 
animals in the form of powders and to the smaller ones, in pills. 
Tincture of the chloride of iron is used when a liquid preparation 
is desired. The sulphate or dried sulphate are the most popular iron 
preparations for large animals, but the carbonate and reduced iron 
are sometimes used. The carbonate or reduced iron is most often 
used for the small animals and is given in pills after meals. If it is 
necessary to administer iron hypodermically, one of the soluble 
forms, such as ammonioferric citrate, may be used in freshly pre- 
pared, well diluted solution. 

Incompatibles. Iron salts are incompatible with all prep- 
arations containing tannic or gallic acids, ammonia, alkaline car- 
bonates and mucilage of acacia. 

FERRUM — IRON 

Ferrum is metallic iron in the form of fine, bright wire. It is 
only used in the production of preparations of iron. 



FERROUS SALTS 405 

FERRUM REDUCTUM — REDUCED IRON 

Synonyms. Iron by Hydrogen, Quevenne's Iron 

Reduced iron is iron reduced to the metallic state by the action 
of hydrogen upon ferric oxide. It should contain not less than 90 
per cent, of metallic iron. It occurs as a very fine grayish-black 
lustreless powder, without odor or taste. It is insoluble in water or 
alcohol. 

Doses. H. 3j — ij ; 4. — 8. D. grs. j — v ; 0.06 — 0.3. 

Reduced iron is used as a hematinic. When pure it is not irri- 
tating and but slightly astringent. 

FERROUS SALTS 
* FERRI CARBONAS — FERROUS CARBONATE 

Synonym. Green Ferrous Carbonate 

This is an unstable preparation. It is used in the preparation of 
saccharated ferrous carbonate. 
Preparation. 

Ferri Carbonas Saccharatus — Saccharated Ferrous Car- 
bonate. 

This is ferrous carbonate protected from oxidation by sugar. It 
should contain not less than 15 per cent, of ferrous carbonate. It 
occurs as a greenish-brown powder, gradually becoming oxidized by 
contact with air, odorless, and having at first a sweetish, afterward a 
ferruginous taste. It is but slightly soluble in water. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Ferri Carbonas Saccharatus. H. not used. D. gr. v — xv; 
0.3—1. 

Massa Ferri Carbonatis (Vallet's Mass). Contains about 42 
per cent, of ferrous carbonate with sugar and honey. 
Dose. D. gr. iij — vij ; 0.2 — 0.5. 

Mistura Ferri Composita (Griffith's Mixture). Compound 
iron mixture contains carbonate of iron in suspension 
with potassium sulphate, myrrh and sugar. Dose. D. 
3j— iv; 4.— 16. 

Pilulce Ferri Carbonatis (Blaud's Pills). Each pill con- 
tains about 1 grain of ferrous carbonate made with crys- 
tallized ferrous sulphate and potassium carbonate. Dose. 
D. 1—2 pills. 

* Unofficial. 



406 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

Therapeutics. The above preparations are used only as hema- 
tinics. Since they are comparatively free from astringent action 
they are convenient ways of administering iron. The saecharated 
carbonate or Blaud's pills are usually preferred. 

FERRI IODIDUM — FERROUS IODIDE 

Synonym. Protiodide of Iron 

Iodide of iron occurs as white crystalline masses, soluble in water 
with partial decomposition. It is used in the following preparations : 

Syrupus Ferri Iodidi (5 per cent, bv weight of the salt). 

Dose. D. lllv— xx ; 0.3—1.3. 
Pilulce Ferri Iodidi (each one grain of the salt). Dose. D. 

1—2 pills. 

These preparations may be used when it is desired to combine 
the action of iron and iodine. They are of some value in adenitis 
and rachitis. 

FERRI SULPHAS — FERROUS SULPHATE 

Synonyms. Green Vitriol, Copperas, Iron Protosulphate 

Iron sulphate occurs as pale bluish-green monoclinic prisms, 
without odor, and having a saline styptic taste: efflorescent in dry 
air. On exposure to moist air the crystals oxidize and become 
coated with brownish yellow, basic ferric sulphate, in which con- 
dition it should not be used. It is very soluble in water, insoluble 
in alcohol. 

Doses. H. o ij — iij ; 8 — 12. Sh. and Sw. gr. xv — xxx; 
1.— 2. D. grs. ij— v; 0.13—0.3. 

Preparations. 

Ferri Sulphas Exsiccatus — Dried ferrous sulphate. 

Doses. H. 3 j — ij ; 4. — 8. Sh. and Sw. gr. viij — xv; 0.5 — 1. 
D. gr. j— v; 0.06—0.3. 
Ferri Sulphas Granulatus — Granulated ferrous sulphate. 

Doses. Same as for iron sulphate. 

Therapeutics. Ferrous sulphate is an astringent externally. 
Internally it is astringent and hematinic and consequently is very 
serviceable in forms of anemia with looseness of the bowels. The 
dried sulphate is often prescribed for the large animals. 

Copperas is quite extensively used as a disinfectant and de- 
odorant for cesspools, etc. 



FERRIC SALTS 407 

FERRIC SALTS 
FERRI CHLORIDI — IRON CHLORIDE 

Chloride of iron occurs as orange-yellow, crystalline pieces, odor- 
less or faint odor of hydrochloric acid, and having a strongly styptic 
taste. It is freely soluble in water, alcohol, glycerin or ether. 

Preparations. 

Liquor Ferri Chloridi. Solution of ferric chloride contains 
about 29 per cent, of anhydrous ferric chloride and an excess of 
hydrochloric acid. 

Dose. H. 3 ij — iv; 8 — 16. Sh. and Sw. 111 x — xx; 0.6 — 
1.5. I>. TTL ij— x; 0.13—0.6. 

Tinctura Ferri Chloridi. 

This is a hydroalcoholic solution of ferric chloride containing 
13.28 per cent, of the metallic salt, corresponding to about 4.6 
per cent, of metallic iron. 

Doses. H. 3ij — 51 j ; 8. — 60. S. and Sw. TTL xv — xxx; 
1.— 2. D. TTL v— lxv; 0.3—3. 

Liquor Ferri et Ammonii Acetatis (Basham's Mixture). Solu- 
tion of iron and ammonium chloride contains 4 parts of tincture of 
iron, 6 parts of diluted acetic acid, 50 parts of solution of ammonium 
acetate, 12 parts of aromatic elixir, 12 parts of glycerin and water 
to make 100. 

Dose. D. 5 j— iv; 4—16. 

Therapeutics. Chloride of iron and the solution are rarely 
used internally. Externally they are styptics and may be used 
to stop minor hemorrhages. The solution well diluted may be found 
useful in hemorrhages from the stomach and intestines but is worth- 
less in other forms of internal hemorrhages. 

Tincture of chloride of iron is also an astringent and hematinic. 
It may be useful for its astringent action as a wash for stomatitis 
and pharyngitis in the proportion of half a dram to the ounce of 
water, or as in the following prescription : 

Pharyngitis. 

R Tinctures Ferri Chloridi 3 ss 

Potassii Chloratis § j 

Glycerini 3 ij 

Aqua? q. s ad. O. j 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. Use as a wash for pharyngitis ; one ounce every 2-3 hours. 

The tincture is frequently used as a hematinic but is more liable 
to disturb digestion than other iron preparations. It is also liable 
to injure the teeth. It is frequently prescribed as follows: 



408 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

Tonic for horse or cow. 

R Tincturse Ferri Chloridi 3 ij 

Strychninse Sulphatis gr. xv 

Liquoris Acidi Arsenosi 3 viij 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 xvj 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

Sig. One ounce three times daily. 

Basham's mixture may be used as a hematinic for small animals. 

FERRI PHOSPHAS — FERRIC PHOSPHATE 

Synonyms. Ferri Phosphas Solubilis U. 8. P. VIII, Soluble 
Ferric Phosphate 

Ferric phosphate, U. S. P. is ferric phosphate rendered soluble 
by the presence of sodium citrate. It belongs to the scale prepara- 
tions of iron, see p. 410. 

LIQUOR FERRI SUBSULPHATIS — SOLUTION OF FERRIC 
SUBSULPHATE 

Synonym. Monsel's Solution 

This is an aqueous solution of variable composition containing 
an amount of basic ferric sulphate corresponding to not less than 
13.57 per cent, of metallic iron. The residue left upon evapora- 
tion of this solution to dryness is called " Monsel's Powder." 

Therapeutics. Monsel's solution and powder are strong stypt- 
ics. They are less irritant than the solution of the chloride but 
form a hard black scab which is objectionable. The scab may 
cover deeper hemorrhages if the solution is poured into a wound 
and for this reason it is better to apply the solution or powder 
upon cotton or gauze. With the better methods of controlling 
hemorrhage at hand, these preparations are rarely used. Solu- 
tion of the subsulphate diluted with a little water may be of serv- 
ice to check bleeding from the stomach or intestines but, like other 
local hemostatics, is worthless for other forms of internal hemor- 
rhage. 

LIQUOR FERRI TERSULPHATIS — SOLUTION OF FERRIC 

SULPHATE 

This is an aqueous solution which should contain about 36 per 
cent, of normal ferric sulphate, corresponding to not less than 10 
per cent, of metallic iron. It occurs as a reddish brown liquid, al- 
most odorless, having an acid, strongly styptic taste, and an acid 
reaction. It is used in the preparation of the antidote for arsenic. 



FERRI HYPOPHOSPHITUM 409 



FERRI HYDROXIDUM — IRON HYDROXIDE 

Iron hydroxide is only used in the preparation of the antidote 
for arsenic. 
Preparation. 

Ferri Hydroxidum cum Magnesii Oxido — Ferric Hydroxide 
with Magnesium Oxide. 

Ferric hydrate is made by precipitating any liquid preparation 
of iron with an alkali. Ferric hydrate with magnesium oxide is 
made by adding magnesia in excess. This is prepared as follows: 

Solution of Ferric Sulphate, 40 mils 
Magnesium Oxide, 10 grams 
Water, a sufficient quantity. 

Since great haste is essential in the preparation of this mixture 
it should be kept on hand in separate bottles as : 

1. Mix the solution of ferric sulphate with 125 mils (4 ounces) 
of water and keep in a large well stoppered bottle (1000 mils 1 
quart). 

2. Magnesium carbonate 10 grams, rubbed to a smooth mass 
with water, transfer this to a bottle holding 1000 mils (1 quart) and 
fill about three fourths full with water. 

For use shake #2 thoroughly, add it to #1 and shake until 
smooth. Given in large doses, dogs one half to 4 ounces, horses 
and cattle 8 — 16 ounces. 

FERRI ET AMMONII SULPHAS — FERRIC AMMONIUM 

SULPHATE 

Ferric ammonium sulphate, ferric alum occurs as pale, violet 
octohedral crystals, without odor and having an acrid, styptic taste. 
It is soluble in 2.7 parts of water, insoluble in alcohol, efflorescent in 
air. Ferric alum is a stronger astringent than alum. It has no 
other use. 

* FERRI HYPOPHOSPHITUM — FERRIC HYPOPHOSPHITE 

Iron hypophosphite occurs as a white or grayish white powder, 
odorless and nearly tasteless ; permanent in air. 

Dose. H. not used. D. gr. j — v; 0.6—0.3. 

This has the same action as the other hypophosphites but in addi- 
tion has some value as a hematinic. It is rarely used in veterinary 
medicine. See Hypophosphites. 

* Unofficial. 



410 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

FERRI VALERAS — FERRIC VALERIANATE 

This is the ferric salt of valerianic acid. It may be employed 
along with the other valerianates when a hematinic action is desired. 
The valerianates are not active drugs. See page 158. 

SCALE PREPARATIONS OF IRON 

These preparations are so named because concentrated solutions 
of them are spread upon glass and allowed to evaporate so that the 
salts may be procured in the form of scales. The following are the 
most important: 

Ferri Citras. 

Ferri et Ammonii Citras. 

* Ferri et Ammonii Tartras, U. S. P., VIII. 

* Ferri et Potassii Tartras, U. S. P., VIII. 

* Ferri et Quininse Citras, U. S. P., VIII. 

* Ferri et Strychninse Citras, U. S. P., VIII. 
Ferri Phosphas. 

* Ferri Pyrophosphas Solubilis, U. S. P., VIII. 

These preparations are only used in small animal practice. The 
average dose of all with the exception of iron and ammonia citrate 
(grs., viij ; 0.5) and Iron and strychnine citrate (grs. ij ; 0.12) is grs. 
iv (0.3). They are used in the preparation of certain syrups, 
glycerites and elixirs. 

FERRUM ALBUMINATUM 

There are several albuminates or proteid compounds of iron. 
Bung, first demonstrated that iron was present in the tissues and 
food as the nucleo-albuminate and succeeded in isolating such a com- 
pound from the yolk of eggs which he called hematogen. This dif- 
fers from the inorganic salts in resisting the action of sulphides. 
Bung believed that the inorganic iron salts were not absorbed and 
only benefited anemia by combining with the hydrogen sulphide, 
which would protect the iron in the food from reduction by the same 
agent until absorption took place. These theories have been dis- 
proved by other investigators and it is generally believed that the 
inorganic preparations are very capable of absorption. Some of 
ithe organic preparations, however, are less disagreeable to the 
stomach and may be slightly more readily absorbed. Schmiede- 
berg obtained a preparation similar to hematogen from pig's liver 
which he named "ferratin" (7 — 8 per cent, of iron). This is now 
prepared by the action of iron salts on egg albumen. Dose for the 
dog is grs. iij — x; 0.3 — 0.6. 
* Unofficial. 



COPPER AND ZINC 411 



HEMOLS 

llemols are prepared by the reduction of hemoglobin through 
zinc dust, and Hemagallol by the precipitation of blood with pyro- 
gallol. 

COPPER AND ZINC 

Copper and zinc have quite similar actions. When adminis- 
tered per os to animals which are able to vomit, they produce a spe- 
cific irritant action, causing vomition before any corrosion occurs, so 
that quite large doses are relatively non toxic, unless administered in 
concentration or to animals which are unable to vomit. Externally 
they are astringents, mild caustics and antiseptics. 

CUPRI SULPHAS — COPPER SULPHATE 

Synonyms. Blue Stone, Blue Vitriol, Cupric Sulphate 
Copper sulphate occurs as large transparent, deep blue triclinic 
crystals, or as a blue granular powder, odorless, and of a nauseous 
metallic taste. It is soluble in 2.5 parts- of water and 500 of alco- 
hol. Dose as an astringent or vermicide is:* 

H. and C. 3 ss— iij ; 0.2—12. Dog gr. %— jss; 0.03—0.1. 
Emetic. Dog. grs. ij — x. 

Action. Copper sulphate is astringent in dilute solutions, caus- 
tic in concentrated ones. Internally it causes emesis by action upon 
the nerves of the stomach before corrosion takes place, i.e., in vomit- 
ing animals. It also has some reputation as a vermicide. 

Copper and its salts are specific poisons for the lower forms of 
plant life. A very small amount in the water, such as is obtained 
by dragging bags of the sulphate through water, behind a boat, is 
sufficient to keep down the growth of algae without affecting the 
higher plant life or injuring the animal life. It is, also, said that 
contaminated water left in a copper vessel will become aseptic but 
it has been found that this takes an unreasonable amount of time, 
and that there is little if any advantage over vessels made of other 
metals. Considerable faith has been placed upon weak solutions 
of copper sulphate as an antiseptic, but it has been found that one 
cannot rely upon solutions below 1 — 1000. 

Toxicology. Acute poisoning is characterized by severe ab- 
dominal pain, violent vomiting and purging. Autopsy shows gastro- 
enteritis with ulcers in some cases. 

Treatment. Administer potassium ferrocyanide, magnesia, sod- 
ium carbonate and soap. Demulcents and albuminous material 
should be freely given. 

The chronic type of poisoning is of doubtful occurrence. 



412 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

Therapeutics. 

1. Emetic. It is a prompt and powerful emetic but should not 
be repeated if results do not follow the first dose. It is particularly 
serviceable in phosphorus poisoning as it forms an insoluble coat- 
ing of copper upon the phosphorus. 

2. Caustic. Particularly for ulcerative stomatitis, conjunctivitis, 
etc. ; fouls of sheep and cow, or fistulous tracts. It may be em- 
ployed as the crystals or made up into sticks for this purpose or may 
be used in fistulous tracts and fouls in strong aqueous solution. 
Solutions of 5—15 grains to the ounce of water are useful in con- 
junctivitis, vaginitis, and urethritis. 

3. Vermifuge. It has been recommended as a vermifuge for 
sheep and horses. For horses it is usually combined with iron sul- 
phate and for sheep given in solution as follows : One pound 
(avoir) of copper sulphate is to be dissolved in 9% gallons of 
water. Doses, ages 3 months, % oz. ; 6 mo. 1% oz. ; 12 mo. 2% 
oz. ; 18 mo. 3 oz. ; 24 mo. 3/4 oz. 

* Copper Oleate. This is made by precipitating a solution of 
copper sulphate with a solution of castile soap. It occurs as light 
or dark green, greasy masses. It has been recommended in 20 per 
cent, ointment for mange of cats and dogs, but the results from its 
use are not encouraging. 

ZINCUM — ZINC 

The element is official in the forms of irregular granulated pieces, 
or thin sheets, or moulded into thin pencils or in fine powder. 
The metal itself is not used in medicine. The following prepara- 
tions are official: acetate, precipitated carbonate, chloride, oxide, 
sulphate; phenosulphonate, stearate, and valerate. 

ZINCI SULPHAS — ZINC SULPHATE 

Synonym. White Vitriol 

Properties. Colorless transparent rhombic crystals, odorless and 
of an astringent metallic taste. Freely soluble in water and glycerin 
but insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. Astringent. H. 5 ss — ij ; 2. — 8. D. gr. % — 3 ; 

0.03—0.2. 
Emetic. Dog gr. x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. 
Emetic. Swine gr. iv — xvj ; 0.5 — 1.0. 

Action. Zinc sulphate in solution is caustic, irritant or astrin- 
gent according to concentration. Large doses cause vomiting in a 
similar manner to the copper salt. Toxic doses produce severe gas- 

* Unofficial. 



ZINCI OXIDUM — ZINC OXIDE 413 

troenteritis. The treatment of poisoning consists of administering 
alkalies and their carbonates, and albuminous drinks like milk and 

eggs. 

Therapeutics. Externally as astringent in catarrhal and sup- 
purative conjunctivitis, V2 to 2 grains to the ounce of water. In 
otorrhea and open wounds stronger solutions are employed. In- 
ternally it is sometimes used as an emetic, especially in poisoning 
by narcotics. It is not often used internally as an astringent. 

B Zinci Sulphatis 3 yj 

Plumbi Acetatis 3 j 

Aquse, q. s ad. O. j 

M. Ft. Lotio. White Lotion. 

These two drugs are chemically incompatible; they form zinc 
acetate which goes into solution and lead sulphate which is insoluble 
in water. Nevertheless white lotion is very frequently employed in 
veterinary medicine for bruises, open wounds, scratches, etc. It 
may be applied upon cotton or gauze under a bandage. 

ZINCI ACETAS — ZINC ACETATE 

Zinc acetate occurs as soft white, six sided monoclinic plates, 
of a pearly lustre, acetous odor and astringent metallic taste. One 
gram is soluble in 2.3 mils of water, and 30, of alcohol. Uses and 
actions same, as the sulphate. 

ZINC CARBONAS PR^ECIPITATUS 

This is an impalpable white powder of varying composition, 
corresponding to not less than 68 per cent, of Zinc oxide; odorless, 
tasteless and insoluble in the ordinary menstrua. An impure form, 
Calamine, was formerly official. 

Action and Uses. Protectant, astringent and antiseptic in 
acute inflammations of the skin, as eczema, scratches, burns, etc. 

R Zinci Carbonatis Prsecipitatis. 

Zinci Oxidi aa 3 ijss 

Glycerini 3 j 

Liquor Calcis 3 ij 

Aquae Posse q. s ad. % vj 

M. Ft. Lotio. 

For Eczema. 

ZINCI OXIDUM — ZINC OXIDE 

This is a very fine amorphous, white or yellow white powder, 
free from gritty particles, without odor or taste and insoluble in 
alcohol and water. 

Doses. H. D. gr. j — vj ; 0.06—0.3. 



414 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

Preparation. Unguentum Zinci Oxidi. 20 per cent, in ben- 
zoinated lard. 

This ointment is very useful as a dressing for burns, eczema, 
scratches, etc. A dusting powder of zinc oxide, talc and starch is 
very useful in moist eczema. 

B Zinci Oxidi. 

Talci Purificati aa. 3 j 

Amyli 3 ij 

M. Ft. Desiccant Powder. 

B Zinci Oxidi 2. 

Adipis Benzoinati 8. 

M. Pt. Unguentum Zinci Oxidi. 

Lassar's Paste. 

R Acidi Salicylici 2. 

Zinci Oxidi. 

Amyli aa. 24. 

Petrolati 50. 

M. Pt. Pasta. 

R Olei Lini. 

Liquoris Calcis. 

Zinci Oxidi. 

Cretse aa. 100. 

M. Pt. Pasta Zinci Oxidi Mollis. (Pnna and N. F.) 

ZINCI CHLORIDUM — CHLORIDE OF ZINC 

This occurs as a white or nearly white granular powder, or in 
porcelain like masses, or moulded into pencils, very deliquescent, 
odorless, of a caustic taste. Freely soluble in water and alcohol. 

Preparation. Liquor Zinci Chloridi. 

This is not prepared from the chloride but from metallic zinc. 
It contains about 50 per cent, of zinc chloride. 

Zinc chloride is the most caustic and least astringent of the zinc 
salts. It is used almost entirely as a caustic or antiseptic and irri- 
tant according to the strength of the solution. It is used more par- 
ticularly as a caustic in fistulse, fouls in cattle and sheep, shoe boils, 
canker, etc. It may be used in strong solution for this purpose 
or as a paste. Some even push the pencils into the sinuses. For 
strong caustic action a<20 per cent, solution should be used or it may 
be made into a paste in this proportion with flour and water. 
Chloride of zinc is the base of most of the drug treatments for cancer. 
It is usually applied as a paste for this purpose. 

B Sanguinarise Padicis. 

Zinci Chloridi aa I iij 

Pulv. Acacise. 

Aquse aa. I j 



ARGENTUM — SILVER 415 

M. Ft. Pasta. To be applied upon gauze or packed into a fistula 
and left two or three days. This is the " so called " Ger- 
man caustic. Very similar to a proprietary veterinary rem- 
edy called dynamite. 

Fouls in Sheep and Cows. 

R Zinci Chloridi E j 

Aquae 5 vj 

M. Ft. Solutio. Use as an injection once daily for 3 or 4 days, 
then reduce three times. 



ZINCI STEARAS — ZINC STEARATE 

This salt occurs as a fine white bulky powder, tasteless and 
having a faint, characteristic odor. It is insoluble in water, alco- 
hol or ether. Its action and uses are similar to the oxide. It may 
be used in 50 per cent, ointment or as the powder. 

ZINCI VALERAS — ZINC VALERATE 

Zinc valerate occurs as white, pearly scales, or as a. white powder 
having the odor of valeric acid, and a sweetish astringent and metal- 
lic taste. It has been used as an antihysteric in human medicine and 
for chorea of dogs but is of questionable, if any, value. Dose for 
dogs, gr. j — iij; 0.06—0.18. 

Zinc Phenolsulphonate is discussed under phenol, p. 452. 

ARGENTUM — SILVER 

Silver is absorbed very slowly. Furthermore it is reduced to the 
inactive state as soon as it enters the body, according to Jacobi, so, 
that it cannot lead to general poisoning and the only evidence of its 
absorption is a dark discoloration of the skin after prolonged ad- 
ministration (Argyrism). This stain is the result of the deposition 
of metallic silver in the connective tissue of the corium, sweat glands, 
smooth muscle, etc. It is rarely seen in animals. 

The effects produced by silver when introduced intravenously 
differ from those caused by other metals mainly in the prominence 
of nervous symptoms. These nervous disturbances are paralytic and 
mainly peripheral in origin. The paralysis is largely motor begin- 
ning with that of the posterior extremities, followed by some de- 
pression of the respiratory center, stimulation of the vasomotor 
center followed by paralysis. There are no therapeutic indications 
except for its local action. The cyanide, oxide and nitrate are offi- 
cial but the nitrate is the one most used. 



416 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

ARGENTI NITRAS 

Synonym. Silver Nitrate 

Silver nitrate occurs as colorless, transparent, rhombic tabular 
crystals, becoming gray or grayish-black on exposure to light in the 
presence of organic matter ; odorless, caustic metallic taste and solu- 
ble in 0.54 part of water, and 30, of alcohol. It turns dark upon 
exposure to light so should be protected from it. 

Doses. H. gr. v — xv; 0.3 — 1. Sh. and Sw. gr. ij — iij ; 
0.13—0.2. D. gr. %— y 2 ; (0.01—0.03). 

Preparations. 

Argenti Nitras Fusus. Silver nitrate toughened with hydro- 
chloric acid and moulded into hard white sticks or pencils (Lunar 
Caustic) . 

* Argenti Nitras Mitigatus (Mitigated Caustic). This appears 
as moulded cones or pencils. It is made by fusing 3 parts of silver 
nitrate, and 6, of potassium nitrate. 

Incompatibles. Silver nitrate is incompatible with organic 
matter, bromides, chlorides, iodides, cyanides, sulphates, carbonates, 
phosphates, arsenates, and hydrochloric acid. It is explosive with 
creosote. 

Action. Silver is one of the most toxic of the metals to bacteria 
and protozoa but relatively non toxic to mammals. It possesses a 
great affinity for proteids and is irritant, caustic or astringent ac- 
cording to concentration. Applied to the skin, the nitrate is a 
superficial caustic or escharotic. Its action is superficial because 
it forms compounds with the tissues which are not soluble in an 
excess of the proteid. The eschar is at first white but later becomes 
black by oxidizing in the light. In order to remove the black stain 
from the hands or skin it is necessary to wash the stain with a 
solution of potassium cyanide or paint with tincture of iodine, and 
bleach with a solution of sodium hyposulphite. In dilute solution 
it is an unirritating astringent and antiseptic to mucous membranes 
or raw surfaces, precipitating the proteids of the tissues and con- 
tracting the bloodvessels. In concentration it is escharotic but al- 
ways of a superficial action on account of the impermeable membrane 
formed, which prevents penetration. It is also a very active antisep- 
tic. 

Internally in therapeutic doses there is no action besides that of 
astringent and antiseptic. Its action is largely confined to the 
stomach because it is so easily precipitated by proteids, chlorides 
and acids. The astringent action is entirely exerted upon the 
stomach unless it is administered in keratin covered pills. 

Absorption and Elimination. Silver nitrate is largely elim- 



ORGANIC SILVER COMPOUNDS 417 

inated by the bowels without undergoing absorption. The fact that 
argyrism takes place, shows that it is absorbed to some extent. Its 
elimination after absorption is not well known but is usually re- 
garded as taking place slowly by the urine. Argyrism of the con- 
junctiva may result from the use of silver in the eye and it is said 
to be more common from the organic preparations than from the 
nitrate. 

Toxicology. In large doses silver nitrate is a severe poison, 
causing profound gastroenteritis with abdominal pain, nausea, vom- 
iting and purging. White patches of corrosion may be seen in the 
mouth soon after administration but these turn black upon oxidiz- 
ing. 

Treatment. Sodium chloride is the best antidote because it 
forms the insoluble silver chloride. Administer demulcents and fol- 
low with symptomatic treatment. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Antiseptic. Silver foil is used as an antiseptic, nonirritant 
dressing for surgical wounds. 

2. Stimulant to< inflamed mucous membranes and ulcers. 10 to 
40 grains to the ounce of water or as the stick. It is very useful 
in ulcers of the cornea in which condition it may be applied as the 
stick or in strong solution for thorough disinfection, then follow with 
daily installation of a 1 per cent, solution. 

3. Remove Excessive Granulations. Silver nitrate in form of the 
stick is probably the best agent we have for this purpose, but is not 
a good caustic for snake or dog bites because of its superficial ac- 
tion. 

4. Internally. It is chiefly used for its local action upon the 
gastro-intestinal canal. It is the next best drug to Bismuth for 
chronic gastric catarrh and gastric ulcer. It is also used in acute 
and chronic inflammations of the intestines but is not generally so 
useful as in gastric troubles. 

Administration. For action upon the stomach the drug should 
be administered in pill form upon an empty stomach, 20 to 30 
minutes before meals. It is often combined with powdered opium 
or the extract of hyoscyamus for this purpose. If desired to act 
upon the intestine, it must be administered in keratin coated pills. 
Aqueous solutions should always be prepared with distilled water as 
there are enough chlorides in ordinary water to precipitate the 
salt. Since the nitrate oxidizes in the light, solutions must be kept 
and dispensed in amber or blue bottles. 

ORGANIC SILVER COMPOUNDS 

Since silver is such an active germicide and the nitrate has the 
undesirable properties of precipitating proteids and chlorides, many 



418 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

attempts have been made to produce a compound that would retain 
the desired qualities of the nitrate but not possess the undesired ones. 
The most important of these preparations are : — Argyrol, Protargol, 
Argentamin, Actol (Silver Lactate), Itrol (Silver Citrate), and 
Largin. Besides these, there is the soluble allotropic form of silver 
suggested by Crede (Argentum Solubile). 

* Argyrol (Silver Vitellin). This is a compound of silver and 
a vegetable proteid containing about 30 per cent, of metallic silver. 
It is one of the best organic preparations on account of its high per- 
centage of silver, extreme solubility and nonirritant action. It is 
used in 5 to 25 per cent, solutions. Argyrol is particularly useful as 
an astringent and antiseptic for mucous membranes, especially those 
of the eye, nose, vagina and urethra. 

* Protargol. This is also a proteid salt of silver containing 
about 8 per cent, of the metal. It occurs as a fawn-colored powder, 
freely, but slowly soluble in water. Protargol is an active nonirri- 
tating germicide useful in the same class of conditions as mentioned 
under argyrol. In purulent conjunctivitis it is used in from 1 to 10 
per cent, solution in water. 

* Argentamin. This is a 10 per cent, solution of silver nitrate 
in a 10 per cent, solution of Ethyl-enediamin. The object of the last 
preparation is to prevent the precipitation of proteids and chorides. 
It is decomposed by light. It is said to be useful in from 3 to 5 
per cent, solution for conjunctivitis and keratitis. 

* Actol. Silver Lactate. White, odorless and tasteless powder, 
soluble in about 20 parts of water. It is a powerful germicide. 
Solutions of 1 — 1000 will kill most organisms in 5 minutes. 

* Itrol. Silver Citrate. This resembles the lactate in appear- 
ance but is less irritating and quite insoluble in water. It has been 
recommended as a dusting powder and as a 1 — 1000 solution for 
sterilizing instruments. 

* Largin is a proteid compound of silver containing about 11 per 
cent, of silver. Used in 0.5 to 1.5 per cent, solution. 

* ARGENTUM SOLUBILE 

Synonyms. Soluble Silver, Crede's Salt, Collargol, Colloidal Silver 

This is an allotropic form of metallic silver containing about 
87 per cent, of that metal. It is easily soluble in water. It may 
be used intravenously, subcutaneously, by inunction, per rectum 
or by the mouth. At one time Crede's salt was strongly recom- 
mended as a treatment for septicemia, mastitis, bronchitis, pneu- 
monia and other bacterial diseases. Its intravenous administra- 
tion is not dangerous if carefully made, but may be followed in a few 
hours by rigor, which is not very serious. A 1 — 3000 solution 

* Unofficial. 



SALTS OF BISMUTH 419 

lias been recommended as a wash for mucous membranes or body 
cavities. Solutions decompose when exposed to light but may be 
kept for a long time if protected from it. It is used in from 2 to 5 
per cent, solution in distilled boiled water intravenously, the dose 
being for the horse 5 ss — j ; for the dog, gr. j — ij. For inunction 
Creole's Ointment offers the best method of administration. This 
is a 15 per cent, preparation of the drug with lard and wax. The 
inunction is useful in local infections, and should be applied after the 
skin has been scrubbed with soap and water and dried with alcohol. 
Dieckerhoff has recommended collargol in the treatment of pur- 
pura of the horse in daily intravenous doses of 25 mils of a 2 per 
cent, solution. More recent results have not been so satisfactory and 
at the present time the drug is rarely employed. 

BISMUTH 

Bismuth is official in the following forms: 

Bismuthi Subcarboiias. Bismuth subcarbonate, a white, in- 
soluble powder, odorless and tasteless. 

Dose. H. and C. 5 j — iv; 4. — 15. Dog. gr. v — lx; 0.3 — 4. 

Bismuthi Subnitras. Bismuth Subnitrate. Character and 
doses similar to the preceding drug. 

Preparation. Magma Bismuthi. Milk of bismuth. 

Dose. D. 3 ss — ij ; 2. — 8. 

Bismuthi Subsalicylas. Bismuth Subsalicylate. Characters 
similar to the preceding salts. Dose one half that of the carbonate. 

Bismuthi Subgallas. Bismuth Subgallate, Dermatol. Yellow, 
insoluble powder, dose same as the preceding. 

Bismuthi Citras. Bismuth citrate. Insoluble, white powder, 
rarely used in medicine but is used in the manufacture of bismuth 
and ammonium citrate. Dose same as for the subcarbonate. 

Bismuthi et Ammonii Citras. Bismuth and ammonium ci- 
trate. White, soluble powder. Dose, same as for the carbonate. 

Action. Bismuth is used entirely for its local action. 

Externally and Locally. The various insoluble preparations 
have a marked healing action when applied to mucous membranes 
and raw surfaces. They dry the secretions and form a protective 
covering to the wound. ' With the exception of the subnitrate their 
action is purely mechanical and is due to fine particles of the powder 
plugging the lymph and blood capillaries. The subnitrate is believed 
to be more astringent and antiseptic than the others due to the 
liberation of nitric acid in the presence of water and the secretions 
of the tissues. 

The salts of bismuth act physically when given by mouth. ^ They 
adhere to the mucous membrane of the stomach and protect it from 



420 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

irritation. Upon reaching the intestines they act in the same way 
and protect the mucous membrane from stimulation by the food 
and secretions. Consequently, peristalsis is diminished and there 
is a tendency to check diarrhea. Most of the bismuth is eliminated 
from the bowels unchanged. Some is changed into the sulphide in 
the large intestines. This gives the feces the characteristic black 
color. Animals taking large quantities sometimes have a garlicky 
breath but this is due to impurities (Tellurium) and not to the 
bismuth. 

There is no reason to believe that there is any marked differences 
in the action of the various salts. The soluble salt is decomposed 
in the stomach to the insoluble oxychloride, so that it has no ad- 
vantage over the insoluble ones. 

Therapeutics. Externally. 

1. As dusting powders for burns, wounds, and skin diseases. 
They may be used alone or mixed with starch in various propor- 
tions. When mixed into a paste with glycerin and water they are 
serviceable as dressings for burns but may be too toxic for wide 
applications. The subgallate (Dermatol) has been especially recom- 
mended as less toxic but appears to be about as toxic as the other 
preparations. 

2. For fistulse and chronic sinuses. Some practitioners have 
good results by injecting a bismuth paste in these conditions. In- 
jections are not usually recommended more frequently than once a 
week. 

Internally. 

1. To check nausea, vomiting and gastric irritation in gastritis, 
and other conditions. It is one of the most popular drugs for these 
conditions in small animal practice. 

2. To check intestinal irritation either in simple fermentative 
diarrhea or in a true inflammation of the intestines. The subni- 
trate, subgallate and subsalicylate are often preferred and may be 
combined with some intestinal antiseptic. 

The following prescriptions are representative: 
For Gastric Irritation. 

B Bismuthi Subnitratis grs. x 

Cerii Oxalatis grs. x 

M. Ft. Pulver. 

Sig. Give at one dose. Repeat in half hour intervals if necessary. 

or 

B Bismuthi Subnitratis. 

Cerii Oxalatis aa. gr. ij 

Stovainse or Cocainse Hydrochloridi gr. V12 

M. Ft. Capsula. 

Sig. One every hour. 



PLUMBUM — LEAD 421 



Diarrhea, Dog. 

!$■ Bismuthi Subnitratis * j 

Phenolis Salicylatis . . . 3 ss 

M. Ft. Charta? No. VI. 
Sig. One every six hours. 

Bismuth Paste. 

R Bismuthi Subnitratis ■ § J 

Petrolati § ij 

M. Ft. Pasta. 

CERIUM 

The only salt of cerium used in medicine is the insoluble oxalate. 

CERII OXALAS — CERIUM OXALATE 

Properties. Cerium oxalate occurs as a white or slightly pink- 
ish, odorless powder, insoluble in water and alcohol. 

Doses. Dog gr. x — xxx; 0.6 — 2. Cat gr. v — xv; .33 — 1. 

Action and Uses. Cerium oxalate resembles the insoluble bis- 
muth salts in action and uses. Like the bismuth salts it is protect- 
ant and may be of considerable service to check vomiting due to irri- 
tation of the stomach, but does not check vomiting of central origin. 
Baehr and Wessler found it non toxic in 50 gram doses in dogs and 
believed the ordinary doses of a few grains to be too small. They 
recommend 30 to 60 grains as the human dose. 

It is used to check nausea and vomiting due to irritation of the 
stomach and is frequently combined with bismuth for this purpose. 

B Cerii Oxalatis. 

Bismuthi Subnitratis aa. 3 ij 

Ipecacuarihse gr. iij 

M. Ft. Chartse No. xii. 

Sig. One every hour for a dog with gastritis. 

PLUMBUM — LEAD 

Lead salts differ from the other heavy metals in being astringent 
instead of corrosive. They may produce sufficient corrosion to be 
absorbed but not sufficient for acute poisoning from systemic ef- 
fects, no matter how administered or in what amounts. The small 
amounts absorbed are not sufficient for acute poisoning but since 
lead is excreted slowly, it fulfills the conditions necessary for cumula- 
tive action if the dosing or exposure is prolonged. 

Single moderate doses of the acetate or other salts do not exert 
any effect beyond the digestive tract where they are astringent. 
Large doses of lead salts act as irritant poisons and produce violent 



422 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

gastroenteritis, shown by nausea, vomiting, thirst and usually 
diarrhea, although constipation may be seen. Death is usually pre- 
ceded by coma, convulsions and collapse. 

Absorption. Lead salts are absorbed from all surfaces of the 
body, the skin as well as the digestive tract. There is no absolute 
proof as to the form in which lead is absorbed but it is generally 
believed to be absorbed as a soluble lead albuminate. 

Elimination. The salts of lead are largely eliminated as the 
sulphide without undergoing absorption. The part which is ab- 
sorbed is excreted by most channels of elimination, with the possible 
exception of the sweat, although many believe it is excreted to some 
extent in this secretion. The greater part is cast off by the epithelium 
of the skin and digestive tract, although a considerable amount is 
excreted in the urine. Potassium iodide will hasten its elimination 
for a time but soon ceases to influence the process. Lead is often 
deposited as the sulphide on the edge of the gums, giving the char- 
acteristic " lead line." The part retained in the body soon disap- 
pears from the blood and is largely stored in the liver and other 
organs. 

The following table from Heubel was obtained by examination 
of a dog killed with lead and gives some idea of the distribution of 
lead in the body: 



Liver 


0.03 — 10 per cent 


Kidney 


0.03 —0.07 


Brain 


0.02 —0.05 


Bones 


0.01 —0.04 


Muscles 


0.004—0.008 


Blood Traces. 



Toxicology. Lead poisoning may be conveniently divided into 
the acute and chronic types. The acute is due to its corrosive ac- 
tion before absorption, and the chronic, to its effects after absorp- 
tion. 

There are numerous sources from which sufficient amounts of 
lead may be obtained to cause poisoning. One of the most com- 
mon is from lead pipes used for carrying drinking water. These 
pipes are quite safe for hard water as they soon become crusted 
over with insoluble lead sulphate. On the other hand, soft water, 
especially, if it contains quantities of C0 2 , easily dissolves enough 
lead to produce chronic poisoning. A fairly safe method of deter- 
mining the danger from this source is the examination of the inside 
of the pipe. If the interior is found to be corroded and dull in 
appearance there is little danger, while if it is bright, it indicates 
that the lead is being dissolved. Other sources of lead are, the 
vegetation in the vicinity of lead smelters, lead paints, scrapings 



PLUMBUM — LEAD 423 

from paint buckets thrown upon the ground, paint buckets or re- 
cently painted troughs, and buildings. Men frequently become 
poisoned by handling the lead salts, or by using them in the arts 
(painters). Lead salts are present in some wall papers and tinned 
goods are sometimes dangerous if there is too large a percentage of 
lead in the solder or upon the tins. 

Toxic Doses. This has not been well established, and varies 
greatly with the species of animal, idiosyncrasy, general condition 
and preparation of lead given. Lander gives the following provi- 
sional figures for minimum fatal doses of lead acetate : 

Horse 7500 grains 
Cow 720 grains 
Sheep 450 grains 

Some of the lead used in paint (carbonate) must be much more 
toxic because there are records of fairly small amounts causing death 
in cattle. 

Horses are relatively resistant to lead and very few cases of 
lead poisoning have been noticed among them. Cattle, on the other 
hand, are quite susceptible. The different species are most suscepti- 
ble in the following order : cattle, pigs, sheep, dogs, horses. 

Symptoms of Poisoning. Acute. This results from a single 
large dose and the symptoms are those of gastroenteritis as men- 
tioned above, and are entirely due to local corrosive action. There 
may be some nervous disturbances as stupor, coma, delirium, or 
muscular tremors. 

Chronic Lead Poisoning or Plumbism. This is remarkable from 
the standpoint of length of time which the sickness may last. Cases 
are on record where animals survived for 58 weeks. It usually ex- 
tends over several weeks or months. The usual symptoms are those 
of gastrointestinal disorder, with lead line on the gums, constipa- 
tion or diarrhea, loss of appetite, thirst and tucked up abdomen. 
The nervous system is also extensively involved. This is shown by 
paralysis of the extensors of the extremities so that the animals 
stand upon the knees in front and toes behind. Besides this there 
may be general paralysis, convulsions, anesthesia, dizziness, tremors, 
delirium, coma and blindness. The general symptoms are anemia, 
short breathing, emaciation, acceleration of the pulse, edema and 
interstitial nephritis. The paralysis is usually considered as due to 
peripheral neuritis and the delirium, convulsions, etc., to some ac- 
tion upon the brain or cord. Colic and constipation which are 
common symptoms in man, are rarely observed in animals. 

Lesions. In acute poisoning there is usually evidence of cor- 
rosion. Particles of lead may also be found in the stomach or in- 
testines of the animals. Frequently pieces of lead paint will be 



424 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

found. The lesions found in chronic poisoning vary so that little 
diagnostic importance can be placed upon them. 

Treatment. Acute. First remove the cause as soon as possible. 
In acute poisoning administer a sulphate, preferably epsom or Glaub- 
er's salts, so as to convert the drug into as insoluble a form as possi- 
ble. Then remove the contents from the stomach with an emetic or 
stomach tube if this can be done. If not, administer an excess of 
one of the above mentioned salts to produce purgation and carry off 
the insoluble compound. Treat the resultant gastroenteritis with 
anodynes and demulcents. 

Chronic Poisoning. The removal of the lead is also the chief 
indication in chronic poisoning. This should be accomplished as 
mentioned under acute poisoning. Then administer large doses of 
potassium iodide to hasten the elimination of the poison. 

General Uses of Lead. The uses of lead depend entirely upon 
its local astringent action. It is recommended by some for internal 
administration, but others consider it too dangerous to be ever used 
in this manner. 

PLUMBI ACETAS 

Synonyms. Lead Acetate, Sugar of Lead 

Lead acetate occurs as colorless, shining, transparent, monoclinic 
prisms or plates, or heavy white, crystalline masses or granular crys- 
tals, having a faintly acetous odor and sweetish, astringent and 
finally metallic taste, efflorescent. Soluble in 1.4 parts of water 
and 38 of alcohol. 

Doses. H. 3 j — ijss; 4. — 10. Cow gr. xv — xlv; 1. — 4. 
D. gr. % — iv; 0.05 — 0.26 once or twice daily. 

Its action has been previously discussed. 

Therapeutics. Internally, for its astringent action. It has 
been used in obstinate diarrheas and hemorrhages from the stomach 
and bowels, usually combined with opium. 

Externally it is used entirely for its astringent and sedative ac- 
tion. It is sedative and astringent to wounds, sprains, bruises, etc. 
Lead acetate is an ingredient of White Lotion (see under Zinc salts). 
The old lead and opium wash is usually made of the subacetate of 
lead but the acetate may be substituted. (See I£ 1.) This is very 
useful as a sedative and astringent for bruises, sprains, inflamma- 
tions, etc. Lead acetate should not be used as an eye wash if there 
is any abrasion of the cornea as it may form a permanent deposit 
of lead and obscure the sight. 

PLUMBI SUBACETAS — SUBACETATE OF LEAD 

This preparation of lead is so unstable that it is only used in 
solutions. 



PLUMBI OXIDUM — LEAD OXIDE 425 

Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis contains lead acetate 18, lead oxide 
11, and water to make 100, or 25 per cent, of subacetate of lead. 
The dilute solution — Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus — con- 
tains 1 per cent, of subacetate of lead or 4 per cent, of the stronger 
solution. 

Liquor Plumbi et Opii. N. F. Lead and Opium Wash. 

Therapeutics. The stronger solution diluted with 3 or 4 parts 
of water is useful as an application in acute eczema, contusions, etc. 
Diluted 1 to 4 — 8 in ointment it is useful in scratches, and acute 
skin diseases. 

The weaker solution is not strong enough for much benefit but is 
frequently used as lead and opium wash (2 parts of lead water to 1 
of laudanum). 

R Plumbi Acetatis 3 J 

Tincturse Opii § 3 _ _ 

Aquae q. s ad. I viij 

M. Ft. Lotio. 

This solution is chemically incompatible, but nevertheless has 
been quite widely used as an application to bruises, etc. 

* PLUMBI IODIDUM — LEAD IODIDE 

Lead iodide is a heavy bright yellow powder, without odor and 
sparingly soluble in water and alcohol. 

Preparation. TJnguentum Plumbi Iodidi — 10 per cent. 

Lead iodide is used for its iodine action. It has been recom- 
mended as a desiccant powder in thrush of horses, and as an oint- 
ment in non suppurative adenitis. 

$ Sodii Iodidi z J 

Plumbi Iodidi. 

Olei Oliva? aa. 3 ij ss 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 

Sig. Apply under bandage for pustular dermatitis of extremities of 
dog. Said to be specific. (Udall.) 

* PLUMBI NITRAS — LEAD NITRATE 

Lead nitrate occurs in white translucent octohedral crystals; 
it is odorless, and has a sweetish astringent, metallic taste. Solu- 
ble in 2 parts of water. It is used as a caustic either in pure form 
or concentrated solution in canker of horses. 

PLUMBI OXIDUM 

Synonyms. Red Lead, Litharge, Lead Oxide 

Lead oxide occurs as -a heavy reddish yellow powder or minute 
scales, odorless, tasteless and insoluble in the ordinary menstrua. 
* Unofficial. 



426 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

Rarely used except in preparation of Goulard's Extract and lead 

plaster. 

Preparation. 

Emplastrum Plumbi. Lead Plaster. Diachylon Plaster. 

Lead plaster is prepared by adding lead oxide to a hot solution 
of equal weights of lard and olive oil. It makes a useful protec- 
tive dressing for superficial ulcers and bed sores. Equal parts of 
lead plaster and petrolatum make an efficacious application in sub- 
acute eczema. Lead Plaster also enters into all the official plasters 
and Diachylon Ointment. 

LTnguentum Diachylon. 

B Lead plaster , . 50 gm. 

Oil of lavender 1 gm. 

White Petrolatum 49 gm. 

Melt the lead plaster and white petrolatum, strain, cool, and add the 
oil of lavender. 



HYDRARGYRUM — MERCURY 

Mercury differs from the other metals in having a marked spe- 
cific toxic action upon protoplasm. It is toxic to both higher and 
lower forms of life and has very strong antiseptic properties. Its 
action is due to its affinity for proteid molecules. Mercury forms 
albuminoids with the proteids of the tissues which are soluble in an 
excess of the albumen, alkali or sodium chloride solution, so that it 
is quite readily absorbed. It differs also from the other metals 
in exerting a definite constitutional action which lasts for some 
time after its administration, due to the slowness of elimination. 
Furthermore, while most metals are harmless in their free or metal- 
lic state, mercury is very toxic. It is absorbed and distributed 
throughout the body rapidly on account of its being volatile, liquid 
and easily oxidized. Mercury compounds are absorbed from all 
surfaces of the body and consequently may be administered per os, 
inunction, inhalation and fumigation. 

Elimination. Mercury is eliminated slowly, chiefly by the in- 
testinal canal but also to some extent by the urine, saliva, sweat and 
milk. The elimination by the kidneys starts promptly but is very 
slow and has been known to persist for 8 days after a single dose. 
It is largely retained in the body in the internal organs as in the case 
of lead, and soon disappears from the blood. 

If small amounts are administered over a long period of time, 
the first symptoms will be noticed in the mouth, as shown by saliva- 
tion, soreness of the gums and teeth, and fetor of the breath. 
Later, if the administration is kept up, the gums will become swollen, 
the teeth, loosened and fall out, salivation will be profuse, tongue 
and glands, enlarged and the bones, necrotic. These symptoms con- 



HYDRARGYRUM — MERCURY 427 

stitute what is known as mercurial ptyalism. The general health 
also suffers as is shown by anemia, loss of flesh, fever, chills, thirst, 
anorexia, vomiting and purging. 

The mercuric salts are more toxic and irritant than the mercur- 
ous. The administration of a single large dose of one of them (the 
sublimate) is soon followed by burning in the throat, esophagus, 
stomach and intestines. Nausea, vomiting and purging of a bloody 
mucus takes place. There may be dysuria, anuria and collapse if 
the patient does not die from shock or collapse due to the corrosion. 
Even a single large dose may lead to chronic poisoning, death be- 
ing delayed for several days and being finally due to lesions in the 
gastro-intestinal canal, or nephritis. The animals remain conscious 
till the last as the nervous system is not affected early. In chronic 
cases the general symptoms are overshadowed by the local or cor- 
rosive action. These are most prominent in the gastro-intestinal 
tract, no matter in what way or form mercury is given, and consist 
of gastro-enteritis, which begins in the upper part of the tract as 
mentioned under ptyalism, and extends to the intestines. It is 
violent in the lower portion of the bowels, causing severe abdominal 
pain and bloody discharges from the bowels. Death may be due 
to gastro-enteritis, uremia on account of the nephritis, or to pros- 
tration. 

The insoluble preparations (calomel) in medicinal doses are 
cathartics causing quite copious discharges, attended with but little 
pain. They also serve as diuretics, probably due to some stimulat- 
ing action upon the tubules of the kidneys. Mercury preparations 
are also useful when applied to glandular or other exudations of a 
serous or fibrinous nature. They are also strong antiseptics. 

The toxic doses of mercuric chloride for the different animals are 

given as: 

120 grains for the horse. 

120 " " " cow. 

60 " " " sheep. 

3-5 " " " dog. 

Autopsy. The mucosa is always inflamed and often ulcerated. 
The kidneys show acute parenchymatous nephritis, and in addition 
to this, frequently contain deposits of lime in the tubules which 
are fairly suggestive of mercurial poisoning. 

Treatment of Poisoning. Acute poisoning. Administer milk 
or egg albumen to form the albuminates, and remove these with a 
stomach tube or emetic to prevent absorption. Then give demul- 
cents to sooth the irritated membranes. The systemic treatment is 
purely symptomatic. 

Chronic Poisoning. Administer potassium iodide to hasten the 
elimination and treat the other conditions symptomatically. 



428 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

For Ptyalism. Stop the drug. Wash the mouth with a strong 
solution of potassium chlorate. Give atropine to check the saliva, 
potassium iodide, to hasten the elimination, and tonics and stimu- 
lants, to support the animal. 

Therapeutics. 1. Germicide. The soluble forms have great 
antiseptic properties but also have some disagreeable features, be- 
ing very irritant, toxic, corrode instruments and in the presence of 
albuminous material are converted into inert and insoluble albumin- 
ates ; nevertheless, they are very popular germicides. The bichloride 
is usually employed. 

2. Cathartic. The insoluble preparations, calomel, blue mass, 
and mercury with chalk, are just sufficiently irritant to stimulate 
peristalsis. They are not suitable for habitual constipation but to 
thoroughly unload the bowels, especially in the early stages of in- 
fectious fevers. (Distemper of dogs.) 

3. Diuretic. Calomel and blue mass are very effective in sub- 
acute dropsical effusions in cardiac or hepatic disease. 

4. Absorbent. Ointments of mercury are very useful in sub- 
acute and chronic inflammations. 

5. Irritant and Counterirritant. The soluble preparations are 
very serviceable as irritants and are favorite remedies in veterinary 
medicine for this purpose in bony enlargements, spavin, etc. 

Administration. The salts of mercury are usually given per 
os in veterinary practice. Tor external action they are applied 
either in alcoholic solution or in ointments. 

HYDRARGYRUM — MERCURY 

Synonym. Quick Silver 

Mercury is chiefly derived from the sulphide or cinnabar. It 
occurs as a heavy, silvery white, mobile, odorless and tasteless 
liquid, specific gravity of 13.59 and is the heaviest known liquid. 
It is insoluble in ordinary solvents but is soluble in nitric acid. 

Preparations. 

Massa Hydrargyri — Mass of Mercury — Blue Mass; mercury 
33 ; oleate of mercury 1 ; althaea 15 ; glycerin 9 ; honey of rose 32. 
Blue mass is mercury extinguished with oleate of mercury, honey 
of rose and glycerin, with a hardening excipient added. 

Doses. D. gr. ss — xv; 0.03 — 1. 

Uses. Blue mass is used as a laxative and diuretic, particularly 
in canine practice. It is an excellent cathartic to unload the bowels 
in the early stages of infectious fevers (distemper). It is usually 
combined with digitalis or squill for diuretic action in dropsies of 
chronic heart and liver disease. 

Hydrargyrum cum Creta — Mercury with Chalk — gray pow- 



SALTS OF MERCURY 429 

der; mercury 38; clarified honey 10; chalk 57; water q.s. This is 
a finely divided form of mercury obtained by triturating mercury 
with clarified honey. Moist chalk is then added. It contains 38 
per cent, of mercury, and is useful as a laxative, antacid and altera- 
tive. Very useful in diarrheas of young animals, foals, calves, 
puppies. 

Doses. Foals and calves gr. x — xv; 0.6 — 1. Dogs gr. 
j— iv; .065—0.3. 

TJnguentum Hydrargyri. Mercurial ointment. Contains 50 
per cent, of mercury. 

TJnguentum Hydrargyri Dilutum; Diluted mercurial Ointment 
— Blue ointment ; mercurial ointment 600, petrolatum 400. 

Mercurial ointment contains 50 per cent, of mercury. It is 
made very similarly to blue mass. These ointments are quite exten- 
sively used as absorbents and in skin diseases but should not be ap- 
plied over large areas on account of danger from absorption. They 
are very useful as absorbents in such conditions as synovitis, bursitis, 
arthritis and glandular enlargements. Mercurial ointment is also 
a parasiticide but is usually employed as Blue ointment — TJnguen- 
tum Hygrargyri Dilutum — which contains 30 per cent, of Mercury. 
Avoid use on cattle as they are said to be very susceptible. 

* Emplastrum Hydrargyri. Mercurial plaster, contains 30 per 
cent, of mercury. Used externally as an application for enlarged 
glands, parasites, eczema. 

SALTS OF MERCURY 
HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI CORROSIVUM — CORROSIVE 
MERCURIC CHLORIDE 

Synonyms. Corrosive sublimate, mercuric chloride, bichloride 
of mercury, perchloride of mercury. 

Bichloride of mercury occurs as heavy, colorless, rhombic cry- 
stals, or crystalline masses or as a white powder ; odorless, perma- 
nent in air, and having a characteristic and persistent metallic taste. 
It is soluble in 13. parts of water, 3, of alcohol and about 12, of 
glycerin. It may be made more soluble by the addition of hydro- 
chloric, tartaric or citric acid, or ammonium chloride. 

Doses. H. & C. gr. jss— iij ; 0.1—0.2. Sh. & Sw. gr. %— 
Ys ; 0.01—0.02. D. gr. %*— % ; 0.005—0.01. 

Action and Uses. The action of this salt has been previously 
given. It is used internally as an alterative and tonic ; externally 
as a caustic, antiseptic, disinfectant, parasiticide, resolvent and irri- 
tant. 

* Unofficial. 



430 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

1. Tonic or Alterative. Sometimes useful in addition to iron 
as a tonic in secondary anemia. 

2. Caustic. Here it is used as a paste with acacia, 1 — 1 to 5, or 
as a caustic solution in alcohol from 1 to 3 to 10, or as a super- 
saturated solution in water by aid of hydrochloric acid, or applied 
in pure form. 

3. Antiseptic. Corrosive sublimate is one of the best antiseptics. 
It is extremely powerful, solutions as weak as 1 — 20,000 kill most 
bacteria and a solution of 1 — 10,000, most spores. A few organ- 
isms such as those of anthrax are more resistant to it. It has, how- 
ever, several disadvantages ; in the presence of hydrogen sulphide it 
is converted into the insoluble and inert sulphide. It forms im- 
permeable albuminates with the proteids of the tissues which pre- 
vents deep action, is irritant to the tissues, corrodes instruments 
and may be sufficiently absorbed to produce harm if applied too 
freely to wounds or mucous membranes. In spite of these objec- 
tions corrosive sublimate is one of the best agents for preparing 
the field of operation, the hands of the operator and for irrigating 
infected wounds and cavities, but should not be used in serous cavi- 
ties because it is too irritant. For the field of operation and the 
operator's hands a solution of 1—1000 or 1 — 500 may be used. 
For large cavities or wounds, 1 — 10,000 or 5000 ; for small wounds, 
1 — 2000 ; for the bladder and vagina, 1 — 20,000 ; and conjunctiva, 
1 — 5000. Tartaric or citric acid may be added to prevent the 
formation of the albuminates with the tissues. Hard water par- 
tially precipitates the salt as the oxide but this may be prevented 
by the addition of an equal amount of sodium chloride. 

4. Disinfectant. It is useful for stable or other disinfection; 
may be used as a wash or spray in 1 — 500 to 1 — 1000 for this 
purpose. 

5. Parasiticide. Solutions of 1 — 1000 in water or alcohol are 
very serviceable for ringworm, mange or lice, but must be used 
with caution on account of absorption and danger from the animal 
licking it off. 

6. Irritant and absorbent. Corrosive sublimate is a valuable 
irritant and absorbent in bony growths, spavin, etc. 

fy Hydrargyri Chloridi Corrosivi 1. 

Aquae 300. 

Alcoholis •_ TOO. 

M. Ft. Sol. Application for hands and operating areas, lice, 
mange, eczema. 

^ Hydrargyri Chloridi Corrosivi 3 iv 

Acidi Hydrochlorici 3 jss _ 

Alcoholis 3 viij 

M. et ad, 



HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDE MITE — CALOMEL 431 

Alcoholis E xxxvj 

Olei Terebinthinse § vj 

Camphorse 3 iv 

M. Sig. Apply daily with tooth brush for spavin. 

B Hydrargyri Chloridi Corrosivi gr. ij-iv 

Iodi. 

Glycerini aa. 3 j 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 3 j 

M. Sig. Apply every other day with brush for spavin, etc. 

R Hydrargyri Chloridi Corrosivi 0.8 

Acidi Hydrochlorici 60.0 

Alcoholis 640.0 

M. Ft. Harrington's Solution. 

Very powerful skin disinfectant. Sponge surface for two minutes, 
then wash with alcohol. 

R Hydrargyri Chloridi Corrosivi 3 i v 

Acidi Hydrochlorici 3 ij 

Aquae q. s ad. O. ij 

M. Ft. Supersaturated solution for caustic injection in fistulse. 

* Sal Alembroth is composed of 2 parts of corrosive sublimate 
to 1 of sodium chloride. This is less irritant than the mercuric salt 
used alone. 

Incompatibles. There is a wide range of incompatibles. 
Albumen, tannic acid, alkaline carbonates, iodides, silver nitrate, and 
solutions of lime. It forms mercuric iodide if combined with po- 
tassium iodide but if there is an excess of the latter salt a colorless 
solution of the double salt is formed so that the two may be com- 
bined for therapeutic action. 

* Lotio Flava. Yellow Wash is made by adding 24 grains of 
mercuric chloride to 16 ounces of lime water. Yellow mercuric oxide 
is precipitated and calcium chloride is in solution. 

HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDUM MITE — MILD MERCUROUS 

CHLORIDE 

Synonyms. Calomel, mercurous chloride, protochloride of 
mercury, subchloride of mercury. 

Calomel occurs as a white, odorless, tasteless powder, insoluble 
in all ordinary menstrua, permanent in air. 

Doses. H. and C. 3 j — ij ; 4. — 8. Sheep gr. xv — lx ; 1. — 4. 
Dog gr. ss— jss; 6.03—0.1. Cat gr. %— %; 0.01—0.05. 

Preparation: Pilulce Catharticce Compositce. 1 grain each. 

Therapeutics. 1. Cathartic. Particularly for the dog and 
cat but is not suitable for habitual constipation, being specially use- 
ful in the early stages of infectious fevers to thoroughly unload the 
bowels and at the same time serve as an intestinal antiseptic. 
* Unofficial. 



432 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

2. Intestinal Antiseptic in distemper, influenza, purpura, etc. 

3. In Diarrhea of the Young to Serve as an antiseptic and rid 
the animal of the irritant. 

4. Diuretic in conditions as mentioned previously. 

5. Calomel is also regarded as a vermicide for round worms. 
It is best prescribed with santonin. In this combination each drug 
seems to aid the other. 

6. Externally. Antiseptic and desiccant in moist eczema, 
canker, thrush and foot rot. It is very useful added to zinc oxide 
ointment in proportion of 5 to 20 grains to the ounce for subacute 
and chronic eczema. It is probably the best single remedy for the 
treatment of thrush in horses, and is useful in corneal ulcers and 
phlyctenular conjunctivitis. 

Incompatibles. It is incompatible with chlorates, chlorides, 
iodides, bromides, and lime water. 

* Lotio Nigra. Black Lotion. This is made by adding 1 dram 
of calomel to 16 ounces of lime water. Black mercuric oxide is pre- 
cipitated and calcium chloride remains in solution. This is useful 
in acute eczema. It should be daubed upon the parts and allowed 
to dry. Then follow with ointment of zinc oxide. 

HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM RUBRUM — RED IODIDE OF 

MERCURY 

Synonyms. Biniodide of Mercury, Mercuric Iodide 

Bed iodide of mercury occurs as a scarlet red amorphous powder, 
odorless, tasteless, slightly soluble in water and in 116 parts of al- 
cohol, but freely soluble in solutions of potassium iodide. 

Doses. Very seldom used internally. 

Preparation. Liquor Arseni et Hydrargyri Iodidi. Dono- 
van's solution. Contains 1 per cent, of each iodide. 

Doses. H. and C. 3ij— %] ; 4—30. I). TTL ij— x; 0.13—0.6. 

Therapeutics. It resembles the bichloride and is almost en- 
tirely used externally as an irritant and antiseptic. It is a favorite 
blister in ointments with lard or petrolatum 1 :3 — 8 or in strong 
alcoholic solution for diseases of the bones. It is believed that its 
action extends deeply. It is a strong antiseptic, but rarely used for 
this purpose. 

R Hydrargyri Iodidi Rubri. 

Cantharidis aa 3 ij 

Adipis 3 ij 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 

Sig. Apply to spavin or ringbone. Rub well. 

* Unofficial. 



HYDRARGYRI NITRAS — NITRATE OF MERCURY 433 

U Hydrargyri Iodidi Rubri 30.0 

Potassii Iodidi 10.0 

Tincturse Cantharidis q. s ad. 100.0 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Apply with cone or swab to spavin, ringbone, etc. Avoid con- 
tact with the hands. Antiperiostin according to Frohner. 

HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM FLAVUM — YELLOW MERCUROUS 

IODIDE 

Synonyms. Protiodide of Mercury, Green Iodide of Mercury, 
Mercurous Iodide. 

Properties. Bright yellow amorphous powder, odorless and 
tasteless. By exposure to light it becomes greenish, as it decom- 
poses into metallic mercury and mercuric iodide. 

Therapeutics. This is less irritant than the red iodide. Par- 
ticularly useful in mercurial treatment of syphilis in man. 

* HYDRARGYRI NITRAS 

This is official as: 

1. Liquor Hydrargyri Nitratis. (60 per cent, mercuric nitrate 
and 11, of free nitric acid.) 

2. Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis. Citrine Ointment. (7 
per cent, of mercuric nitrate), Mercury 7, nitric acid 17.5, Lard 76. 

Therapeutics. The ointment more or less diluted, is used as a 
stimulant to indolent ulcers, ringworm, chronic eczema, or is applied 
full strength to ulcers, foot rot, etc. 

It is often useful diluted 1 — 7—8 as a stimulant to chronic 
eye diseases such as opacities or deposits in the cornea. 

For Opacity of Cornea. 

R Unguenti Hydrargyri Nitratis 3 j 

Oleati Hydrargyri ° }J , 

Adipis Lanse Hydrosi 3 iij-v 

Sig. Paint on edge of lids once or twice daily. 

For Ringworm. 

R Unguenti Hydrargyri Nitratis * j 

Adipis 3 iv 

M. Pt. Unguentum. 

Sig. Apply to part twice daily. 

HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATUM — AMMONIATED MERCURY 

Synonyms. Mercuric Ammonium Chloride, White Precipitate 

This salt is made by the action of ammonia upon bichloride of 
mercury. It occurs as a white, odorless, tasteless, insoluble powder. 

Preparation. Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammoniati (10 per 
cent.) in white petrolatum 50, Hydrus wool fat 40. 
* Unofficial. 



434 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

Therapeutics. Externally as a stimulant and parasiticide, in 
chronic eczema, parasitic skin diseases, etc. In eye salve 1 ; 10 — 20. 
The official ointment is usually too powerful 20 to 30 grains to the 
ounce is usually sufficient. 

* HYDRARGYRI CYANIDUM 

Cyanide of mercury occurs as colorless, prismatic crystals, odor- 
less but of a bitter metallic taste. Kesembles the bichloride but 
is less irritant. It does not corrode instruments and is used in 
surgery as an antiseptic. 

HYDRARGYRI OXIDUM FLAVUM AND HYDRARGYRI 
OXIDUM RUBRUM 

Synonyms. Yellow Precipitate, Red Precipitate 

Yellow mercuric oxide and red mercuric oxide, yellow and red 
precipitate respectively occur as insoluble powders. The color de- 
pends upon the method of preparation. The uses are identical. 
They are not used internally. 

Preparations. 

* Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Rubri) 10 per cent in wool fat 

Unguentum Hydrargyri Flavi J and white petrolatum. 

Oleatum Hydrargyri 25 per cent, of the yellow variety in oleic 
acid. 

Therapeutics. Stimulant and antiseptic to wounds and 
bruises. The ointments are very useful in eczema, scratches, 
and in chronic glandular enlargements for absorbent action; as an 
eye salve, diluted with an equal amount of lanolin and petrolatum 
or 1 :30 — 50, in leucoma, or other chronic inflammations of the 
eye. The yellow variety is usually preferred because it is less gritty 
and makes the better ointment. 

^ TTnguenti Hydrargyri Oxidi Flavi 3 iv 

Adipis Lange Hydrosi. 

Petrolati aa 3 ij 

M. Sig. For eczema, granular lids, etc. 

* HYDRARGYRI SUBSULPHAS FLA V AS 

Synonyms. Yellow Mercuric Sulphate, Turpeth Mineral 
This occurs as a yellow, odorless and tasteless powder. It was 
formerly used as an emetic but has been replaced by other drugs. 

HYDRARGYRI SALICYLAS 

Synonym. Mercuric Subsalicylate 
This occurs as a white amorphous powder, odorless, tasteless, in- 
soluble in water or alcohol but soluble in solutions of sodium chlo- 

* Unofficial. 



MANGANESE — CHROMIUM 435 

ride. Has been recommended for chronic rheumatism, particularly 
the so called " syphilitic " of man, but is of no importance in 
veterinary medicine. 

MANGANUM — MANGANESE 

Manganese is found in traces in the red blood cells and other 
tissues of the body, for which reason it has been recommended in 
the treatment of chlorosis and other forms of anemia but the concen- 
sus of opinion of most authorities is that it is worthless in these 
conditions. The soluble salts are not absorbed sufficiently rapid 
to produce systematic effects and the action of the soluble salts is 
purely local. The permanganate has been recommended by some 
as an emmenagogue, but since it is irritating and at the same time 
decomposed into the black oxide of manganese, this preparation, 
Mangani Dioxidum Prgecipitatum, which is free from irritating 
effects, is to be preferred. The permanganate is the most important 
salt and since it is of most service as a germicide it is discussed un- 
der that head. 

The following salts of manganese are used : 

Mangani Dioxidum Prsecipitatum. Precipitated manganese 
dioxide. 

Properties: Heavy, very fine black powder, odorless and taste- 
less, permanent in air, insoluble in water and alcohol. 

* Mangani Sulphas. 

* Mangani Hypophosphide. 
Potassii Permanganas. 

* Syrupus Ferri et Mangani Iodidi. ~N. P. 

CHROMIUM 

Three preparations of chromium are used in medicine: 
Chromium trioxidum, chromium sulphate and Potassium dichro- 
mate. 

CHROMII TRIOXIDUM — CHROMIUM TRIOXIDE 

Synonym. Chromic Acid 

Chromium trioxide occurs in the form of small needle shaped 
crystals or rhombic prisms, of a dark purplish-red color and metal- 
lic lustre, odorless, deliquescent in moist air. It is very soluble in 
water. Decomposition takes place very rapidly when it is brought 
into contact with glycerin, ether and other organic solvents, often 
with dangerous violence. 

Therapeutics. Chromium trioxide coagulates albumen and is 
used entirely as a caustic to destroy granulations and pathological 
tissue, but requires careful handling, as it is liable to cause dangerous 

* Unofficial. 



436 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

wounds. A solution is sometimes employed to wash out poisoned 
wounds. It is not used internally. 

CHROMII SULPHAS — CHROMIUM SULPHATE 

Chromium sulphate occurs as dark green scales, soluble in water. 
It has been recommended in fibrosis of the tissues, such as prostatic 
hypertrophe, etc., and in some forms of neurasthenia, locomotor 
ataxia and exophthalmic goiter in man. The results from its use 
are not conclusive. 

Average dose (human) grs. iv — viij ; 0.25 — 0.5. 

POTASSII DICHROMAS — POTASSIUM DICHROMATE 

Potassium dichromate occurs as large, orange-red, transparent, 
triclinic prisms or four-sided tabular crystals, odorless, and hav- 
ing an acidulous, metal taste. It is soluble in about 9 parts of 
water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. H. gr. iij — x ; 0.2—0.6. D. gr. Yio—Ys; 0.006— 
0.012. 

Therapeutics. Potassium dichromate is rarely used internally, 
although Quitman recommends it in the treatment of Purpura 
Hemorrhagica. 

Externally it is used in a saturated solution as a caustic for 
superficial growths. 

Purpura. 

R Potassii Dichromatis 3 ij 

Tincturse Ferri Chloridi I iv 

Aquae q. s ad. O. j 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. One ounce in water every 4 or 5 hours. 

ALUMINUM 

The only important salt of aluminum is alumen or alum. 

ALUMEN — ALUM 

Alum is official in two forms: ammonium, alum prepared by 
combining aluminum sulphate with ammonium sulphate ; and potas- 
sium alum, prepared by combining aluminum sulphate with potas- 
sium sulphate. 

Potassium alum occurs as large, colorless crystals, crystalline 
fragments or a white powder. It is odorless, has a sweetish and 
strongly astringent taste, soluble in 7 parts of water, more soluble in 
boiling water, insoluble in alcohol. 



ALUMEN — ALUM 437 

Ammonium alum has similar characteristics, but is slightly less 
soluble in water. 

Doses. H. 5 ij — vj ; 8. — 24. Dog, Astringent, gr. v — x; 0.3 
— 0.6. Emetic, oj — ij ; 4. — 8; repeated if necessary. 

Preparation. Alumen exsiccatus, Dried or burnt alum, alumen 
ustum. This is ordinary alum from which the water of crystalliza- 
tion has been driven off by roasting. 

* Liquor Alumini Acetatis — Burow's Solution. N. F. 

Action. The action of alum is purely local. Applied to the 
skin or mucous membranes it is a very strong astringent. It pre- 
cipitates the proteids of the tissues, coagulates the fluids and con- 
stricts the tissues. The precipitate, however, is soluble in an excess 
of the proteid. It is also antiseptic by reason of its coagulant action. 
Alum also forms a firm clot with blood, so is hemostatic. Burnt 
alum is irritant if applied too freely. 

Internally therapeutic doses exert no action beyond the digestive 
tract, where it has a local astringent action and has a tendency to 
cause constipation. It is not at all absorbed from the digestive tract 
aud large doses cause vomiting and exudative inflammation with 
purging. 

Therapeutics. 1. Astringent and antiseptic. Used in 2 — 5 
per cent, solutions for mucous membranes; conjunctivitis, metritis, 
pharyngitis, stomatitis, etc. Burnt alum is useful as a dusting pow- 
der and escharotic for various wounds. 

2. Hemostatic. Alum is valuable as a hemostatic in small 
hemorrhages. Dried alum is to be preferred, but forms a heavy 
scab and is too irritant when used alone. 

3. An astringent internally, but little used. 

4. Emetic. Alum is a safe but uncertain emetic. It has been 
largely superseded by others of more desirable action. One dram in 
a half cup of tepid water may be used in emergency. 

5. Laminitis. Douglas, Merrillat and others recommend alum 
in the treatment of this disease. 

Douglas treats hospital cases by limiting the drinking water 
and administering a 3 to 6 dram dose (bolus) every four to six 
hours until the symptoms are relieved. In treating "out" cases, he 
prescribes 6 to 12 ounces of a solution of 1 ounce of alum to a pint of 
water, to be given every 4 to 6 hours. This treatment may be com- 
bined with the subcutaneous injections of adrenalin over the plantar 
nerves. Campbell recommends 2 ounce doses of alum in a quart of 
water, every 2 hours until a pound has been given. He precedes 
this treatment with arecoline, and administers Ye grain of aconitine 
hypodermically, every half hour until the temperature returns to 
normal. 

* Unofficial. 



438 SALTS OF THE HEAVY METALS 

R Aluminis 3 v 

Plumbi Acetatis ; . . 3 j 

Aquse . § xij 

M. Ft. Burow's Solution. 

Ifc Aluminis Exsiccati 50. 

Acidi Borici 50. 

M. Ft. Pulver. 

Sig. Dusting powder, for wounds, galls, etc. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
SULPHUR COMPOUNDS 

This group contains sulphur, hydrogen sulphide, sulphides, poly- 
sulphides, thiosulphite, ichthyol and thiol. 

Sulphur occurs in the following three forms, sulphur sublima- 
tum, sulphur lotum and sulphur prsecipitatum. 

SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM 

Synonyms. Sublimed Sulphur, Flowers of Sulphur, Sublimed 

Crude Sulphur 

Properties. Fine yellow powder, slightly characteristic odor and 
faint acid taste. It is insoluble in water, nearly insoluble in absolute 
alcohol, ether, chloroform, boiling solutions of alkaline hydrates, oil 
of turpentine and some other oils. 

Preparation. 

Unguentum Sulphuris, 15 per cent, in benzoinated lard. 

SULPHUR LOTUM 

Washed Sulphur 

This is the ordinary sulphur washed with ammonia water to re- 
move the free acids. 
Preparation. 

Pulvis Glycyrrhizce Compositus, Compound licorice powder, 
8 per cent. 

SULPHUR PR^CIPITATUM 

Lac sulphur, milk of sulphur. This is made by precipitating a 
solution of sulphurated lime with hydrochloric acid. It is a fine 
amorphous powder, of pale yellow color, with other characteristics 
similar to sublimed sulphur. 

Doses of sulphur. H. gij — iv; 60. — 120. D. 3ss — iv; 2. — 
15. 

Action. Sulphur itself is insoluble in the tissue fluids or diges- 
tive secretions and has no action. When administered by the mouth, 
a large part is eliminated unchanged, but some is converted into sul- 

439 



440 SULPHUR COMPOUNDS 

phides, to which the action is due. These sulphides, hydrogen sul- 
phide and others, are irritant enough to account for the mild cathar- 
sis following the administration of sulphur and are also the cause 
of the foul smelling feces and flatus following its use. Externally 
it is also inert until converted into the sulphides by the secretions 
from the skin and is then a mild irritant and parasiticide. The con- 
version of sulphur into the sulphides is always so slow that it has 
a slow, mild and persistent action. A little is absorbed after conver- 
sion as may be demonstrated by an increase in the amount of phos- 
phates in the urine. 

Therapeutics. 

Externally. It is a stimulant and parasiticide for eczema, 
mange and ringworm. It is most serviceable when used as an oint- 
ment or mixture with oil. The official ointment is often used but 
Unguentum Sulphuris Alkalinum N. F. is probably better, as the 
alkali aids in dissolving the secretions and penetration of the sulphur. 

Internally. Sulphur is a mild laxative. It is very serviceable 
in prolapse, hemorrhoids, etc., and for young animals. 

1. 

B Sulphuris Sublimati. 

Potassii Carbonatis aa. 5. 

Adipis Benzoinati 20. 

M. Ft. Ung. for eczema, etc. 

2. 

R Olei Gossypii Seminis O. ij 

Olei Picis Liquidae 3 iv 

Sulphuris Sublimati 3 iv 

Acidi Salicylici B j 

Liquoris Cresolis Comp 3 j 

M. Ft. Linimentum. 

Sig. Apply for mange and eczema. 

3. 

R Sulphuris Sublimati 20 lbs. 

Calcis 16 lbs. 

Aquae q. s ad. 100 gallons. 

Mix the lime into a thin paste with water, add the sulphur, then 25 
of water, boil 2 hours, draw off liquid portion and add to it 
enough water to make 100 gallons. 
Lime-Sulphur Dip for mange, etc. 

4. 

fy Picis Liquidae. 

Sulphuris Subl aa. 3 iij 

Saponis Mollis. 

Alcoholis aa. 3 vj 

M. Ft. Vienna Tar Liniment (Frohner). 



SULPHURIS IODIDUM — SULPHUR IODIDE 441 

5. 

fy Sulphuris Sublim 50 

Hydrargyri 5 

Pulveris Canthatidis 20 

Petrolati 400 

M. Ft. Ung. 

Sig. For summer mange and acne in horse. 

Unguentum Sulphuris Alkalinum, N. F. 

R Washed Sulphur 20 gms. 

Potassium Carbonate 10 gms. 

Water 5 mils 

Benzoinated Lard 65 gms. 

Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, N. F. (Hebra's Itch Oint- 
ment). 

B Precipitated Calcium Carbonate 10 gms. 

Sublimed Sulphur 15 gms. 

Oil of Cade 15 gms. 

Soft Soap 30 gms. 

Lard 30 gms. 

For Sarcoptic Mange. 

R Unguenti Sulphuris Alkalini, N. F 100. gms. 

Balsami Peruviani 25. gms. 

Saponis Mollis 25. gms. 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 

Sig. Apply every day for several days, wash and repeat if necessary. 

* SULPHURIS IODIDUM — SULPHUR IODIDE 

This is made by heating 20 parts of washed sulphur with 80 
of iodine, in a loosely closed vessel, over a water bath. It occurs 
as dark colored brittle masses of crystalline fracture and metallic 
lustre, iodine odor and acrid taste. It is insoluble in water, soluble 
in 60 parts of glycerin. 

Therapeutics. Always externally. Very serviceable in solu- 
tion in oil in chronic eczema, ringworms and mange. Used in solu- 
tion of 1 :8 — 10 in oil and applied daily with a stiff brush. 

CALCII SULPHIDUM CRUDUM 

Synonyms. Sulphurated Lime, Sulphide of Calcium, Calx 
Sulphurata, U. S. P. VIII 

Properties. Pale gray powder, faint odor of hydrogen sulphide, 
nauseous and alkaline taste. Slightly soluble in cold water. 

Doses. H. gr. xx— lx; 1.3—4. D. gr. Y 10 — %; 0.006— 
0.03. Until saturation as shown by sulphide breath and 
feces. 
* Unofficial. 



442 SULPHUR COMPOUNDS 

Therapeutics. Some reputation in chronic suppurations as 
boils, fistulse, etc. The impure salt is the basis of the lime sulphur 
dip for mange. 

POTASSII SULPHURATA 

Synonyms. Sulphurated Potash, Liver of Sulphur, Sulphide 

of Potash 

Properties. Irregular pieces, liver brown when freshly made, 
changing to greenish brown, greenish yellow and finally to gray, 
strong odor of hydrogen sulphide and a bitter acrid alkaline taste; 
soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Therapeutics. Almost entirely as a bath for mange. It may 
be used on horses in strength of 1 to 30, dogs % as strong, 1 to 100. 

SULPHITES 
SODII SULPHIS EXSICCATUS — DRIED SODIUM SULPHITE 

Dried sodium sulphite occurs as a white powder, odorless and 
having a cooling saline and sulphurous taste, efflorescent in air ; sol- 
uble in 3.2 parts of water, slightly soluble in alcohol. 

Doses. H. and C. §ss— j ; 15.— 30. D. gr. iij— xv ; 0.2—1. 

SODII BISULPHIS — SODIUM BISULPHITE 

Sodium bisulphite occurs as opaque prismatic crystals or a 
granular powder, exhaling an odor of sulphur dioxide and having a 
disagreeable sulphurous taste. When exposed to the air, it loses 
sulphur dioxide and is gradually oxidized into the sulphate. It is 
soluble in 1 parts of water and 72 of alcohol. 

Doses. The same as for the sulphite. 

SODII THIOSULPHAS — SODIUM THIOSULPHATE — 
HYPOSULPHITE 

Sodium hyposulphite occurs as a white crystalline powder or as 
white transparent crystals, odorless, and of a cooling, somewhat bit- 
ter taste. It is freely soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol. 

Doses. Same as the bisulphite. 

Action and Uses. Externally, these preparations are deodor- 
izers, antiseptics and antiparasiticides. The hyposulphite is most 
used. These preparations are used externally in the treatment of 
parasitic skin disease. They may be applied in ten per cent, solu- 
tion for mange and ringworm. Sodium thiosulphate is used to re- 
move iodine and silver nitrate stains. There are no indications for 
the use of these drugs internally. 



ICHTHYOL — ICHTHARGAN 443 



* ICHTHYOL 

This is a mixture of sulphur compounds obtained by the distil- 
lation of a bituminous shale rich in fossil remains of fishes, hence 
the name, found in Tyrol. It occurs as a thick, dark liquid, of a 
bituminous odor and taste. It is soluble in water and in mixtures of 
alcohol and ether, miscible with oils and glycerin in all proportions, 
but is almost insoluble in strong alcohol and ether. It contains 
from 10 to 15 per cent, of sulphur, to which its effects are probably 
largely due. 

Doses. H. § ij ; 60. D. 5 j ; 4. Daily. In capsules or pills. 

Action. It is slightly irritant if applied in concentration and 
is readily absorbed through the unbroken skin if massaged fairly 
well. It is also antiseptic. Its method of action is in dispute. In- 
ternally large doses cause gastrointestinal irritation and diarrhea. 

Therapeutics. 1. Skin diseases. Here it resembles sulphur 
in action and uses. It is very serviceable in eczema and mange, in 
ointments from 5 to 25 per cent, in strength. 

2. Resolvent. It is reported as very efficient in reducing swollen 
glands and joints. Use same strength preparation as above. 

3. As a dressing for burns, sprains, bruises and wounds. 

4. Internally. Ichthyol has been recommended in dog distem- 
per, in purpura, etc., but its claims are probably exaggerated. 

* IOHTHALBIN 

Ichthalbin is a combination of ichthyol with albumin. It occurs 
as a brownish, odorless, tasteless powder. 

Doses. Dog gr. iij — v; 0.18 — 0.3. 

Therapeutics. Recommended as a substitute for ichthyol for 
both external and internal use, on account of the disagreeable odor 
and taste of the latter drug. 

* ICHTHOFORM 

This is a condensation product of ichthyol and formaldehyde. It 
has been advanced as a substitute for ichthyol, but although odorless, 
is generally less serviceable. 

* ICHTHARGAN 

This is a combination of ichthyol and silver, containing 30 per 
cent, of metallic silver in organic chemical combination. It occurs 
as a brown amorphous powder, of faint chocolate odor, freely soluble 
* Unofficial. 



444 SULPHUR COMPOUNDS 

in water. Chiefly used as an injection in gonorrhea of man and 
diarrhea in foals, grs. xv ; 1., with opium or tannin. Externally it 
may be substituted for silver nitrate. 

* THIOL 

This preparation was introduced as a commercial substitute for 
ichthyol, but has not been very satisfactory. It is made by action of 
sulphur and sulphuric acid upon a hydrocarbon formed by destruc- 
tive distillation of peat. 

Tumenol is a similar product. 
* Unofficial. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

Germicides or Disinfectants are agents which will kill or 
destroy microorganisms and their spores. They may produce this 
action by coagulating the albuminous constituents of the organisms 
( metals and their salts), by oxidizing or deoxidizing the cells (potas- 
sium permanganate and the sulphides), or by a specific action against 
them. 

Antiseptics are agents which prevent or hinder the growth of 
microorganisms, without necessarily killing them. There is little 
difference between disinfectants and antiseptics. Most antiseptics 
are disinfectants in strong solution or concentration and all disin- 
fectants are antiseptics in weak solutions. 

A few agents are usually classified as antiseptics because they 
are ordinarily used in sufficient concentration to prohibit the growth 
of organisms, but too weak to destroy them. The principle antisep- 
tics are boric acid, methylene blue, pyoktanin, etc. 

Deodorizers are agents which destroy offensive odors and do not 
necessarily possess antiseptic or disinfectant properties, although 
most deodorizers are disinfectants. They produce their action 
largely by oxidizing or deoxidizing fetid compounds by abstracting 
hydrogen from them. The most important are chlorine, lime, for- 
maldehyde, charcoal and potassium permanganate. 

CLASSIFICATION OF GERMICIDES 

Disinfectants may be classified according to their physical or 
chemical structure, or according to their therapeutic use. For con- 
venience of study they will be discussed in detail under the former 
head and a therapeutic grouping made later. 

The principal agents used as disinfectants are: 

1. Heat. 

2. Metals and their salts. 

3. Benzene derivatives. Phenol group. 

4. Aniline derivatives, Pyoktanin, etc.. 

5. Oxidizers and deoxidizers. 

6. Halogen group. 

7. Miscellaneous. 

445 



446 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

HEAT 

Heat is probably the most certain disinfectant, and may be em- 
ployed either dry : flame, hot air ; or moist : steam, superheated steam 
or as boiling water. Incineration is the best disinfectant for litter, 
dressings and articles of little value. 

Steam. Steam may be used either at atmospheric pressure (Ar- 
nold sterilizer) or under several pounds pressure, (autoclav). 
There is nothing except the actual flame which is more destructive to 
bacteria or more penetrating to fabrics than superheated steam (under 
5 — 15 pounds pressure), which gives a temperature of 220° — 230° 
F. It has been demonstrated that moist heat at 230° F. will kill 
the most resistant spores in 15 minutes. This is the favorite method 
for disinfecting surgical dressings. Next in order for dressings 
comes the Arnold sterilizer in which steam at 212° F. is used. For 
the best results this should be employed for % hour or longer on 
three successive days (fractional sterilization). 

Boiling water is mostly used for disinfecting instruments. If 
sodium carbonate is added, it will prevent the corrosion of instru- 
ments and at the same time raise the boiling point of the water. 
Liquids which need sterilization (solutions of cocaine, m etc. ) may 
be boiled if they are not destroyed by the heat. Dry heat is less 
effective than moist and the temperature needs to be considerably 
higher. 

Pasteurization is incomplete sterilization, in which most but not 
all of the organisms are killed. It consists of exposing the liquid to 
a temperature of about 160° F. for % hour. It is employed on a 
large scale to reduce the number of bacteria in milk. 

Cold acts as a preservative, but does not destroy bacteria. On 
the contrary, it has been found in the case of ice cream that although 
the number of bacteria will decrease for several days, after a time 
they will show a marked increase, even when the temperature is 
below freezing. 

METALS AND THEIR SALTS 

These combine with the albumen of the bacterial cells and form 
metallic albuminates. Since they also form the same compounds 
with the cells of the tissues, they form a hard scab or dense pre- 
cipitate, do not penetrate deeply, and are soon destroyed by the 
tissues. Most important are: 

Salts of Mercury — Bichloride, nitrate, oxide. 

Silver, Nitrate and the organic preparations. 
Copper, Sulphate. 

Iron, Sulphate, subsulphate, chloride. 
Zinc, Chloride, sulphate, acetate. 
Bismuth, Subiodide, subnitrate. 



PHENOL — CARBOLIC ACID 447 



BENZENE DERIVATIVES — PHENOL GROUP 

This group includes phenol, phenolsulphonates, creosote, guaia- 
col, salicylates, cresol preparations, tar, resorcinol, naphthalene, etc. 

PHENOL 

Synonyms. Carbolic Acid, Phenic Acid 

Phenol is obtained from the fractional distillation of coal tar 
and subsequent purification, or is made synthetically. It should 
contain not less than 96 per cent, of absolute phenol. It occurs as 
colorless, needle shaped crystals, or a white crystalline mass, of a 
characteristic odor and sweetish burning taste. Upon exposure to 
light, phenol assumes a reddish tint and consequently should be 
kept in amber or blue bottles or tin containers. It is soluble in 
19.6 parts of water at 25° C. (5 per cent.) or in 9 parts of water 
(90 per cent.) but is not soluble in strengths between these; freely 
soluble in alcohol, glycerin, chloroform, ether and oils. Phenol has 
some acid characteristics, but is really an alcohol of the benzene 
group. 

Doses. Ii. 3j — ijss; 4.— 10. D. Tu_ % — iij ; 0.05—0.2. 

Preparations. 

Phenol Liquefactum — Liquefied phenol. This is made by 
adding 1 gram of distilled water to each 9 grams of lique- 
fied phenol. It contains 87 per cent, of absolute phenol, 
or 90 per cent, of phenol U. S. P. and was introduced 
into the pharmacopoeia for convenience of dispensirg. 

Unguentum Phenolis 3 per cent, in white petrolatum. 

Glyceritum Phenolis 20 per cent, in glycerin. 

Dobell's Solution Liquor Sodii Boratis Compositus, K". F. 
3 grams of phenol, 15 grams each of sodium bicarbonate 
and borax, 35 mils of glycerin, and water to make 1000 
mils. 

Action on Lower Life. Phenol is a specific protoplasmic poi- 
son; it precipitates the proteids, but differs from many proteid pre- 
cipitants in that it does not form compounds with them, as is shown 
by the fact that it may be washed out of the precipitate, which re- 
mains unchanged. Phenol is a very active antiseptic for most bac- 
teria, but not for their spores. A 1 — 1000 solution prevents the 
growth of most bacteria and a 1 per cent, solution is fatal to most 
pyogenic bacteria, tubercle, cholera, pus producers, etc., but anthrax 
spores will not be destroyed in 24 hours with a 5 per cent, solution 
and tetanus spores are almost as resistant. Solutions in fat or alco- 



448 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

hoi have little antiseptic action because phenol has a greater affinity 
for them than for the water or proteids of the tissues. 

External and Local Action. When applied to the skin in 
concentration, phenol whitens the skin, causing a burning sensation, 
followed by a slight anesthesia. The blanched skin later assumes 
a brownish tint and the epidermis is desquamated. This action is 
due to precipitation of the proteids with which it comes in contact 
and may be prevented by washing with alcohol or glycerin in which 
it is very soluble. In weaker solutions phenol is anesthetic and 
antipruritic. It is absorbed from the intact skin, but more readily 
from mucous membranes, and paralyzes or depresses the sensory 
nerve endings. Since phenol coagulates the proteids of the tissues, 
its action is not deep after single applications, but if kept in con- 
tact with the skin for a considerable time local gangrene may result 
even when dilute solutions (5 per cent.) have been used. 

Digestive System. In small doses it is anesthetic and seda- 
tive to the stomach, in large doses, a gastrointestinal irritant. 
Therapeutic doses are converted into phenolsulphonates. 

Circulatory System. Medicinal doses have little if any effect. 
Larger doses first accelerate and then slow the heart. Toxic doses 
are followed by a marked fall in blood pressure due to cardiac and 
vaso-motor depression or paralysis. 

Nervous System. Therapeutic doses exert no action. Large 
or toxic doses depress the cerebrum, causing stupor and coma. In 
animals tetanic convulsions are often seen and are followed by de- 
pression, suggesting that the spinal centers are first stimulated and 
then depressed. Applied locally it is an anesthetic and produces 
this action by depressing the peripheral sensory nerves. 

Respiratory System. The respirations are first stimulated 
and then depressed by toxic doses. Death is usually due to 
asphyxia. 

Temperature. Temperature is reduced in fevers. Large or 
toxic doses dangerously lower temperature. Phenol acts on the 
temperature similarly to the coal tar antipyretics. 

Absorption and Elimination. Phenol is absorbed very easily 
and rapidly from the skin, wounds and mucous membranes. It is 
eliminated by all channels, but most of it escapes with the urine. A 
portion is combined with sulphuric and glycuronic acids in the tis- 
sues and is eliminated as the double sulphate and glycuronate of 
phenol ; a portion is oxidized into hydroquinone and pyrocatechin. 
Large doses are followed by smoky urine. Ischuria and albumin- 
uria are common in poisoning. 

Toxicology. Acute or corrosive poisoning is rarely seen in 
animals. Cats are most susceptible to this drug and may be killed 
from too free use of it as a disinfectant for their quarters. Ac- 
cording to Law, from. 3 to 4 drops per pound is the minimum fatal 



PHENOL — CARBOLIC ACID 449 

dose for cats, rabbits and dogs ; for the ordinary dog, one-half dram. 
Horses stand relatively much larger doses; three ounces have been 
given without causing death, yet one ounce is considered as the 
minimum fatal dose. Much, however, depends upon the dilution 
in which administered and the amount of food in the stomach. 
Hoare gives one ounce as the minimum fatal dose for the horse and 
15 minims to 2 drams for the dog. 

Symptoms of Poisoning. Strong phenol causes salivation, 
dysphagia, emesis in vomiting animals, intense abdominal pain, due 
to corrosion, and death in a short time from collapse. If the dose 
has been too small to produce death by collapse or too diluted to 
cause corrosion, the symptoms are: salivation, rapid respirations, 
emesis in vomiting animals, weak rapid pulse, cold extremities, mus- 
cular weakness, paralysis and in a short time stupor and death from 
respiratory or cardiac failure. Convulsions may occur but are not 
common. 

The odor of phenol may be detected on the breath; the urine is 
dark green or smoky, turns darker on standing and may contain 
blood. 

Lesions. If death is due to the concentrated form of phenol, 
there will be white eschars on the mucous membranes of the mouth, 
esophagus, stomach and possibly the intestines. The kidneys may 
show acute nephritis on account of excretion of the drug through 
them. 

Treatment. The local action may be relieved by the applica- 
tion of alcohol, acetic acid or oils, since phenol is more soluble in 
them than in the liquids of the tissues. These agents also tend to 
extract phenol from the tissues as well as to prevent further penetra- 
tion. In acute poisoning wash out the stomach and administer lime 
water or syrup of lime to form an insoluble compound. Alcohol 
and the soluble sulphates have been recommended as antidotes. 
Alcohol acts only as a solvent and should be washed out at once to 
prevent absorption, because alcoholic solutions are easily absorbed 
and also because alcohol does not prevent systemic action. The sul- 
phates are supposed to form insoluble harmless products with the 
phenol in the alimentary tract, but their action is too slow when 
given per os and hence they have been recommended for intravenous 
administration, but Sollmann and Brown found that the combina- 
tion takes place too slowly to be of benefit, no matter how adminis- 
tered. Nevertheless these agents should be given a trial per os. 
Demulcents should be given liberally. 

Therapeutics. 

1. Caustic. Strong phenol may be used to cauterize small 
wounds, like dog and snake bites, sloughing wounds or nail pricks. 
Its action is not very painful and may be checked with alcohol. 



450 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

2. General Disinfectant. Phenol may be used as an antiseptic 
or disinfectant for towels, dressings and wounds in from 1 — 5 per 
cent, solution. It is not employed as a surgical dressing so much as 
formerly, because solutions strong enough to be antiseptic are irri- 
tant to the tissues. It is not a suitable agent for disinfection of the 
surgeon's hands because it anesthetizes or benumbs them. Knives 
and other cutting instruments, which are injured by boiling, may 
be disinfected by placing them in a strong solution, then in alcohol, 
and finally in sterile water. Phenol should not be used for pro- 
longed application to a part on account of its liability to cause 
gangrene. It has been reported that the pustular form of anthrax 
has been cured by injecting strong solutions of phenol around the 
base of the pustule. Phenol camphor (Camphor phenique) makes 
a very good dressing for many wounds. See camphor, p. 87. 

3. Parasiticide. Phenol is toxic to most parasites, mange mites, 
fleas, lice, etc. It is particularly serviceable for mange in sheep, 
ringworm, lungworms, lice, etc., but should not be used upon dogs 
or cats. 

4. Fistulce. Phenol and alcohol treatment. This method of 
treatment has been given considerable prominence, by some prac- 
titioners, in various forms of fistula?. Liquefied phenol is injected 
to fill the cavity, is allowed to remain for two minutes, and then 
washed out with alcohol. The treatment is to be used once in two 
weeks. Drainage is to be provided for, but the wound is not to be 
irrigated. Simply wash the outside. 

5. Local Anesthetic. Phenol is one of the best agents we have 
for pruritis, in which case it may be used in solution or in oint- 
ment. 

6. Antemetic. Its antemetic action is probably due to its 
slight anesthetic action upon the stomach. It may be given in very 
weak 'Solutions or one or two minims may be added to the usual dose 
of bismuth. 

1. Tetanus. Phenol is given credit for having a beneficial 
action in this disease, and it is believed that animals so infected 
have a special tolerance for it. Bacelli's treatment consists of the 
subcutaneous injection of phenol several times daily. Animals 
stand relatively large doses of phenol in this disease, probably 
partly due to a specific tolerance for it and partly because it is 
largely precipitated by the tissues and but slowly absorbed. Thirty- 
six drams of phenol have been given to a horse in this manner 
within twenty-four hours, without producing toxic action. Various 
strengths of solution and doses of phenol have been recommended. 
One dram of phenol in a 5 per cent, solution four or five times 
daily are usually employed. This treatment has been lauded by 
some, but the results from its use are not encouraging. In 1911, 
Bacelli reported the successful treatment of tetanus in man by the 



PHENOL — CARBOLIC ACID 451 

intravenous use of the drug in 2 per cent, solution. Some practi- 
tioners administer phenol in the drinking water or in an enema. 

8. Disinfectant. Phenol is a very useful disinfectant for build- 
ings, runs, etc., in from 3 to 5 per cent, solution. A disinfectant 
made from equal parts of crude carbolic acid and sulphuric acid is 
just as efficient and much cheaper than those made from phenol. 

Contraindications. Phenol should be sparingly used upon 
cats and dogs and should not be used as a disinfectant for kennels or 
catteries. These animals are very susceptible to the drug and may 
absorb enough to cause disastrous results. It should not be used 
as a disinfectant for meat markets, meat wagons, milk houses, or 
wagons, as it is liable to taint the product. This holds good for any 
of the coal tar disinfectants. 

Anesthetic, Pruritis, etc. 

$ Phenolis 3 ij 

Acidi Borici 3 j v 

Alcoholis * 3 

Glycerini 5 ss 

Aquse q. s ad. O. j 

M. Ft. Solutio. 

or 

B Phenolis. 

Camphor® aa. gr. xxx 

Ung. Zinci Oxidi q. s ad. 3 j 

M. Pt. Unguentum. 

Vomiting in Dogs. 

$ Phenolis ^l ti 

Bismuthi Subnitratis £*• x 

M. Ft. Pulver No. 1. 

Sig. One powder every hour. 

or 

B Bismuthi Subnitratis 3 9 

Phenolis S r - yj 

Tincturse Opii Camphoratae 3 J 

Glycerini * ss 

Aquse q. s ad. I jss 

M. 

Sig. One dram every two hours (Quitman). 

Sheep Scabies. Dip. 

B Crude carbolic acid 1-5 Kg. 

Lime 1.0 Kg. 

Soft soap 3.0 Kg. 

W a t er 260.0 liters 

M. Ft. Emulsion. 



452 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

Bacelli's Treatment for Tetanus. 

R Phenolis. 

Glycerini aa. 3 j 

Aquae q. s ad. 3 xxiv 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Three ounces subcutaneously every two to four hours. 

THE PHENOLSULPHONATES — SULPHOCARBOLATES 

The principal phenolsulphonates are those of Calcium, Zinc and 
Soda. 

Sodii Phenolsulphonas is obtained by dissolving phenol in sul- 
phuric acid, and converting this product into a sodium salt. It 
occurs as colorless, transparent, rhombic prisms or crystalline gran- 
ules; odorless and having a cooling, saline bitter taste. Soluble in 
about 4 parts of water, 140 of alcohol and 5 of glycerin. 

Dose. H. and C. oj — viij ; 4. — 30. Dog, gr. iij — xv; 
0.3—1. 

Zinci Phenolsulphonas occurs as a colorless, transparent, 
rhombic prisms or tubular crystals or in granular form; odorless, 
and having an astringent, metallic taste. Soluble in about 2 parts 
of water and alcohol. 

Dose. One-half that of the sodium salt. 

Calcii Phenolsulphonas occurs as white or faintly pinkish- 
white almost odorless powder, having an astringent, bitter taste. 
Easily soluble in water and alcohol. 

Doses. Same as for the sodium salt. 

Action. These salts act like carbolic acid but are practically 
nontoxic. Sodium and calcium phenolsulphonates are used as in- 
testinal antiseptics but theoretically are of doubtful value because 
they are excreted unchanged. The zinc salt is astringent as well 
as antiseptic and is therefore used when a combination of these 
actions is desired. Just how much they act as antiseptics cannot 
be stated, but clinical experience points to their usefulness. It has 
been recommended that they be given in solution for action upon 
the stomach, and in keratin coated pills for action upon the intes- 
tines. They are usually given, however, in the form of compressed 
tablets, either coated or uncoatecl. They are frequently combined 
as in the following prescription : 

B Zinci Phenolsulphonatis 1 part 

Calcii Phenolsulphonatis. 

Sodii Phenolsulphonatis aa. 2 parts 

M. Ft. Pulver. 

5 grains to a dog every 2 to 6 hours. 30 to 60 grains to the horse or 
cow. 



CREOSOTUM — CREOSOTE 453 

The zinc salt is also used as a wash for inflammations of the 
various mucous membranes as in conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, etc., in 
solution of 5 grains to the ounce of water. 

* Xeroform. Tribromphenol-bismuth is a yellow, odorless and 
tasteless powder containing about 50 per cent, of bismuth oxide. It 
is insoluble in ordinary solvents. 

Doses. Dog grs. x — xv; 0.65 — 1, several times daily. 

Action and Uses. Xeroform is used externally as a dusting 
powder, internally as an astringent and intestinal disinfectant. 

CREOSOTUM — CRESOTE 

Creosote is a mixture of phenols, most important of which are 
guaiacol and creosol, obtained by the distillation of wood tar, prefer- 
ably that of the beech (beechwood creosote). It occurs as a colorless 
or faintly yellow, oily fluid, of a smoky penetrating odor and caus- 
tic taste. It is soluble in 140 parts of water and miscible in alco- 
hol, ether, chloroform and the fixed and volatile oils. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Creosotum. H. oj — iv; 4. — 15. Dog, TI\ ss — iij ; 0.3 — 

0.2. 
Aqua Creosoti 1 per cent. D. 3j — iv; 4. — 15. 

Action. Creosote resembles phenol in action but it is much 
less irritant and toxic, although large doses cause all the symptoms 
of poisoning by that drug. It is eliminated somewhat by the 
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract and serves as an antisep- 
tic expectorant. It is anesthetic and, like all members of the 
group, is antiseptic. 

Therapeutics. 1. Expectorant. It is particularly valuable 
in chronic or subacute bronchitis with copious purulent exudate. 
According to Sollmann, it is best administered by inhalation for 
pulmonary diseases, but he also states that it will hasten the absorp- 
tion of pleuritic effusions if rubbed on the chest. Creosote has 
proved of considerable benefit in canine distemper, in which case it 
appears to act as an intestinal antiseptic as well as expectorant. 

2. Antiseptic. It may be used as an intestinal antiseptic in 
chronic gastric and intestinal catarrah. It possesses no advantage 
over phenol for external use. 

3. Local anesthetic. Its anesthetic action is employed particu- 
larly in human dentistry, to relieve toothache. Inhalations of creo- 
sote, one minim to the ounce of hot water, will also frequently allay 
cough. 

* Unofficial. 



454 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

Creosote may be administered in an emulsion, in capsules, alco- 
hol, or a bitter tincture. The last mentioned vehicle is used to 
cover the taste of creosote. Compound tincture of gentian is fre- 
qently used for this purpose in human medicine. 

Chronic Bronchitis, Horse. 

R Glycyrrhizse. 

Althaese aa. I iv 

Creosoti 3 v 

Aquae q. s. 

M. Ft. Pilule No. III. 

Sig. One pill daily (Udall). 

Intestinal Antiseptic, Horse and Cow. 

R Creosoti 3 vj 

Cretse Prseparatse § vj 

M. Ft. Charts? No. XII. 
Sig. One every three hours. 

Distemper Dog. 

R> Creosoti * j 

Emulsi Olei Morrhuse ad. 5 viij 

M. Tere Bene. 

Sig. Two to four drams every six hours. 

* COAL TAR CREOSOTE 

\r.'This preparation has been recommended as a vermicide for 
stomach worms and lung wonns in sheep. For stomach worms give 
the following dosage : Lambs 4. to 12 months old, 2 to 4 drams of a 
-1 per cent, solution as a drench — sheep 3 — 5 drams. For lung- 
worms inject intratracheally 5 mils of a 5 per cent, solution in 
olive oil at intervals of 4 to 5 days. Repeat three or four times. 
(Udall.) 

CREOSOTI CARBONAS — CREOSOTE CARBONATE 

Synonym. Creosotal 

Creosote carbonate occurs as an oily liquid, containing the car- 
bonates of creosote;, chief of which are those of guaiacol and creosol. 
It is odorless and tasteless or having a slight odor and taste of creo- 
sote, is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform 
and oils. 

Doses. About four times those of creosote. 

Action and Uses. Creosote carbonate resembles creosote in ac- 
tion but is less irritating to the stomach and is said to be less toxic. 

* Unofficial. 



GUAIACOLIS CARBONAS — GUAIACOL CARBONATE 455 

GUAIACOL 

This is the chief constituent of creosote, from which it is ob- 
tained by fractional distillation, or it may be prepared synthetically. 
It occurs as a crystalline solid or oily liquid of unpleasant aromatic 
odor and taste. It is slightly soluble in water but soluble in alcohol, 
ether and glycerin. It unites with acids to form crystalline com- 
pounds. 

Doses. Twice those of creosote. 

Action and Uses. Guaiacol acts similarly to phenol and creo- 
sote. It is a powerful antipyretic if applied to the skin and evap- 
oration is prevented, but is very depressant and transitory in action. 
It has been recommended internally in the same group of diseases as 
creosote. Quitman recommends it in dram doses in water, repeated 
in from % to 2 hours if necessary, in edema of the glottis. It is 
claimed that guaiacol will shorten the period of resolution in pneii- 
monia of horses from 2 to 3 days. 

GUAIACOLIS CARBONAS — GUAIACOL CARBONATE 

Synonym. Duotal 

This product is obtained by the action of carbonyl chloride on 
the sodium salt of guaiacol. 

It occurs as a white crystalline powder, of faint odor and taste. 
It contains 91 per cent, of guaiacol, is insoluble in water, slightly 
soluble in alcohol, glycerin and oils. It is claimed to be less toxic- 
and better borne than guaiacol, since it is odorless and tasteless. It 
is used as a substitute for guaiacol in doses about double those of 
that drug. 

Pneumonia of Horse. 

R Guaiacolis % ij 

Glycerini 3 iv 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 5 xvj 

M.. Sig. One ounce every three hours. 

Chronic Cough, Horse. 

R Guaiacolis 3 iv 

Olei Lini O. ij 

M. Sig. One to two ounces three times daily. 

Subacute Bronchitis, Dog. 

R Strychnine Sulphatis gr. % 

Codeinse Sulphatis gr. ij 

Guaiacolis Carbonatis gr. xxx 

Terebeni TTL xxx 

M. Pone in Capsules No. XXIV. 
Sig. Two capsules every 4 hours. 



456 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 



* THIOCOL 

Thiocol is potassium orthoguaiacolsulphonate. It occurs as a 
white odorless powder of a slightly bitter taste and sweetish after- 
taste ; soluble in water or syrup, slightly soluble in alcohol, insoluble 
in ether and oils. It is used as a substitute for guaiacol. 

PIX LIQUIDA 

Synonyms. Tar, Pine Tar 

Tar is an aromatic oleoresin obtained by the destructive distilla- 
tion of Pinus palustris. Miller, and other species of pine. It is 
soluble in alcohol and oils, but almost insoluble in water. Its 
active ingredients are guaiacols and creosols. When redistilled it 
separates into a volatile oil and pitch. 

Properties. Tar occurs as a semiliquid, viscid, blackish-brown, 
noncrystalline, translucent, in thin layers, becoming granular and 
opaque with age; odor empyreumatic, terebinthinate taste, miscible 
with alcohol, ether, chloroform, and fixed and volatile oils. 

Preparations and Doses. 

Pix Liquida. H. § ss — j; 15 — 30. Dog, TIX xv — lx; 1. — 4. 

Oleum Picis Liquidce Rectificatum, a thick dark reddish- 
brown volatile oil distilled from tar; of strong empy- 
reumatic odor and taste. It is soluble in alcohol. Doses. 
Half those of tar. 

Syrupus Picis Liquidce. Tar 5, alcohol 50, magnesium car- 
bonate 10, sugar 850. 

Unguentum Picis Liquidce. Tar 500, yellow wax 150, lard 
350. 

Actions. Tar resembles guaiacol and creosote in action, it is 
an antiseptic, local stimulant, parasiticide and expectorant. 

Uses. 1. Skin diseases. Tar is used as a stimulant, parasiti- 
cide, and antiseptic in various forms of skin disease. It is used as 
a parasiticide in various forms of mange and as a stimulant in 
chronic eczema. It should not be used in acute eczema on account 
of its stimulating action. The general rule for its use in eczema is 
that the more chronic the case, the more is tar indicated. Even in 
chronic cases of this disease, its application must be closely watched 
because many skins will not tolerate it. 

2. Expectorant. Tar and its volatile oil are favorite expec- 
torants among the laity. They are useful in chronic bronchitis, 
where they serve the same purpose as their constituents. For repre- 
sentative prescriptions containing tar, see sulphur, p. 440. 

* Unofficial. 



CRESOL PREPARATIONS 457 

OLEUM CADINUM — OIL OF CADE 

Synonyms. Juniper Tar Oil, Oleum Juniperi Empyreumaticum 

This is a tar obtained from the destructive distillation of Juni- 
perus Oxycedrus, Linne, of the Mediterranean. It occurs as a thick 
dark volatile oil of tarry odor and taste. Its action and uses are the 
same as given for oil of tar, but it is often preferred to this agent 
on account of its more agreeable odor. 

CRESOL PREPARATIONS 

There are three cresols, ortho, meta and para, all homologues of 
phenol. They are obtained by the fractional distillation of coal tar. 
Cresol, U. S. P., is a mixture of the three, freed from phenol. It 
occurs as a colorless or straw colored fluid, turning dark brown with 
age or exposure to light. One mil dissolves in 50 mils of water ; it 
is miscible with alcohol, ether, benzene or glycerin; soluble in solu- 
tions of the fixed alkali hydroxides. It is often called " cresylic 
acid." 

Preparations. 

Liquor Cresolis Compositus, a 50 per cent, solution in potash or 
soda soap. This preparation is claimed to be twice as strong an anti- 
septic as phenol. It is practically identical with Lysol and various 
other soapy disinfectants. 

Formula. 

Cresol 500 gms. 

Linseed Oil 300 gms. 

Potassium Hydroxide 80 gms. 

Alcohol 30 gms. 

Water, enough to make. . .,.1000 gms. 

OTHER CRESOL PREPARATIONS 

* Tricresol is a mixture of cresols : ortho cresol 35 per cent., meta 
cresol 40 per cent, and para cresol 35 per cent. 

* Creolin is an emulsion of cresol made by the use of a resin soap. 
It occurs as a dark brown liquid, of characteristic odor. When 
diluted with water it makes an opaque or milky liquid. There are 
many cresol preparations similar to creolin and used interchangeably 
with it. In general they are less toxic than phenol but should be 
used with care upon dogs and coats. Merck's Creolin (Creolin Pear- 
son) is probably the best for internal use and is the least toxic, al- 
though many other similar preparations have been used without 
causing trouble in horses and cattle. 

Dose of Creolin. H. and C. *ss — j ; 15 — 30. Sh. and Sw. 
3j— ijss; 4.— 10. D. 1TL v— xx; 0.3—1.3. 

* Unofficial. 



458 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

The preparations of cresol are mainly used as antiseptics, disin- 
fectants and parasiticides. They are used internally as antiferments 
and gastro-intestinal antiseptics. 

THYMOL — THYMIC ACID 

Thymol is a homologue of phenol obtained from the oil of thyme 
{Thymus vulgaris) and certain other volatile oils. It occurs in 
large colorless crystals, with a thyme-like odor and aromatic pun- 
gent taste. It is but slightly soluble in water, freely soluble in alco- 
hol, ether and oils. 

Doses. Antiseptic. H. oss — ij. D. gr. ij — v. Vermicide. 
D. grs. v— xxx ; 0.3 — 2. Average grs. xv; 1. 

Actions and Uses. The action of thymol resembles that of 
phenol, but it is less toxic and irritant. It has been used as an anti- 
septic for wounds, but its odor attracts flies and soon becomes dis- 
tasteful to attendants. 

Internally it has been recommended as an intestinal antiseptic, 
but it is used more extensively as a remedy against the hook worms 
(Uncinaria) of clogs. Two methods of use have been advanced for 
the treatment of hookworms. 1. Daily doses of from five to ten 
grains for a considerable length of time, with an occasional saline 
purge about once a week, and 2, according to the following plan: 
Fast the dog for about 12 hours, and give a saline purge at night. 
Early the next morning administer a large dose of thymol with an 
equal amount of sugar of milk, in a capsule ; two hours later repeat 
the dose of thymol and milk sugar and in two hours more administer 
a saline laxative. This treatment may be repeated in from ten days 
to two weeks. Thymol has also been recommended for the treatment 
of tape and round worms. 

Hook Worms in Dog. 

B Thymolis. 

Sacchari Lactis aa. grs. xxx-lx 

M. Pone in capsulas No. 2. 

One at 6 A. M., the other at 8 a. m. Follow with 1 ounce of magne- 
sium sulphate at 10 a. m. 

RESORCINOL — RESORCIN 

This is a diatomic phenol occurring as colorless or slightly red- 
dish prisms or needles, having a slight urine-like odor and sweetish 
pungent taste. It is soluble in alcohol, water and ether. 

Doses. H. 3ss — j;2 — 4. Dog, gr. ij — v; 0.1 — 0.3. 

Action and Uses. Resorcin is similar to phenol but milder in 
action and less toxic. It is also an antipyretic, but is not often used 



NAPHTHALENUM — NAPHTHALEN 459 

for this purpose. Locally it is antiseptic and antipruritic. Resor- 
cin is most frequently used externally in skin diseases, such as 
scratches, eczema, wounds, etc., in a 1 per cent, solution or 10 per 
cent, ointment. A 3 to 5 per cent, solution is very useful in seb- 
orrhea, especially with dandruff. In eczema and pruritis it is -em- 
ployed in from 1 to 5 per cent, solution. Sodium chloride is said to 
enhance its antipruritic action. It may be used internally as an 
intestinal antiseptic. 

Seborrhea. 

R Resorcinolis 3 jss 

Olei Ricini m, xx-xxx 

Alcoholis q. s ad. 3 iv 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Apply to parts once or twice daily. 

Antipruritic. 

R Resorcinolis gr. xv-xxx 

Sodii Chloridi gr. xv 

Liquoris Calcis q. s ad. 5 iv 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. Apply to parts daily, or more frequently if necessary. 

TRINITROPHENOL 

Synonym. Picric Acid 

This is prepared by the action of nitric acid upon phenol-sul- 
phonic acid, obtained by dissolving phenol in sulphuric acid. It 
occurs in yellow, flat odorless scales or crystals of very bitter taste. 
Slightly soluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether. 

Action. Locally it is a caustic in concentration, turning the 
skin yellow. It is also a feeble germicide. Internally it is a cor- 
rosive poison. 

Therapeutics. 

Externally. Burns. Minor degrees of burns are treated as fol- 
lows: Gauze is wet with a 1 per cent, solution of the drug and is 
applied and covered with cotton. It should not be used over large 
or deep burns, on account of danger of poisoning. It is also recom- 
mended by some in a 1 to 6 per cent, hydro-alcoholic solution as a 
dressing for moist eczema and scratches. 

Internally it has been used as a vermicide for strongylosis and 
tapeworms of sheep. For this purpose it is given in doses of 1 to 3 
grains in mucilaginous drinks. 

* NAPHTHALENUM 

Synonyms. Naphthalen, Xaphthalin, Tar Camphor 
This is a hydrocarbon obtained by the distillation of coal tar be- 
tween 180° and 250° C. It occurs as white shining scales, of a 
* Unofficial. 



460 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

strong coal tar odor and burning taste. It is insoluble in water, 
soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform. 

Doses. H. 3ij— iv; 8.— 15. D. gr. j— xx; 0.6—1.3. 

Action and Uses. It has been recommended as an antiseptic 
dusting powder combined with starch, etc. Internally it is used as 
an intestinal antiseptic, but has been largely replaced by betanaph- 
thal. 

BETANAPHTHOL 

This is a phenol occurring in coal tar but mostly made from the 
preceding drug. It occurs in colorless or pale buff colored shining 
scales or a whitish yellow or white crystalline powder, of a faint 
phenol odor and pungent taste. 

Doses. Same as for Naphthalenum. 

In action it resembles phenol, but is less toxic. It is used as an 
intestinal antiseptic and probably ranks next to thymol in the treat- 
ment of Uncinariasis. It is to be given in 10 to 15 grain doses in 
capsules and repeated in two hours, preceded and followed by a laxa- 
tive. It has been advanced as a remedy for skin diseases, but is 
generally less serviceable than tar. 

* BENZONAPHTHOL 

This is formed by the action of benzoyl chloride on betanaphthol. 
It is said to escape the action of the digestive juice. It has the 
advantage of being soluble and tasteless. 

Dose. Dog, gr. ij — vij ; 0.13 — 0.5 every 2 hours. 

BISMUTHI BETANAPHTHOLAS 

Synonyms. Orphol, Bismuth Oxide plus Betanaphthol 

It occurs as a light brown insoluble powder, odorless or with a 
faint odor of betanaphthol, and tasteless. It is useful in intestinal 
catarrh, because it is not broken up until after leaving the stomach. 

ANILINE DERIVATIVES 

Several aniline derivatives have been used as antiseptics, chief 
of which are pyoktanin, methylene blue, trypan blue and scarlet red. 

* PYOKTANIN 

Pyoktanin occurs in two forms, blue and yellow. Pyoktanin 
Blue is chemically Penta et Hexa-methyl-pararosaniline Hydrochlo- 
ride. It is sometimes called methyl blue or methyl violet, and must 

* Unofficial. 



METHYLENE BLUE — TRYPAN BLUE 461 

not be confused with methylene blue. Pyoktanin blue occurs in the 
form of small indigo-colored crystals, slightly soluble in water, freely 
soluble in alcohol. 

Action and Uses. This preparation is slightly astringent, an- 
tiseptic and analgesic. It is very useful in suppurations of the eye, 
conjunctivitis, etc., in solutions of from 1 — 500 to 1 — 1000 in water. 
It may be used on open wounds, upon galls, etc., in the same strength 
solution in either alcohol or water. It is a favorite remedy of 
horsemen for galls and chafes, upon which it may be used in alco- 
holic solution or in the form of an ointment. Pyoktanin blue colors 
the part a deep purple, but this may be removed by rubbing well 
with soap and water and washing with alcohol. It is- not used inter- 
nally in veterinary medicine. 

Pyoktanin yellow occurs as a yellow powder. It resembles the 
previous variety but is weaker. 

Purulent Conjunctivitis. 

3 Atropinae Sulphatis gr. ij 

Pyoktanin Blue gr. j 

Aquae q. s ad. I j 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. A few drops in the eye three or four times daily. 

For Scratches, Hobble Chafes, etc. 

Ifc Pyoktanin Blue gr. j 

Zinci Oxidi 3 j 

Petrolati 3 ij 

Tincturse Iodi 3 ss 

M. Ft. Unguentum. 
Sig. Apply to parts. 

METHYLTHIONINE CHLORIDUM — METHYLENE BLUE 

Methylene blue is antiseptic and analgesic. It is eliminated to 
a great extent by the urine and milk and has been used as a urinary 
antiseptic. During its excretion it colors the urine green. On 
account of its elimination through the mammary gland some prac- 
titioners have employed it in mastitis with considerable success. 
Rich recommends it in infectious abortion of cattle in daily doses of 
10 grams in capsule or upon the ensilage for 4 or 5 weeks as early 
in pregnancy as possible. He also employs it as a uterine douche 
in the same condition, in the proportion of 10 grams of pyoktanin, 
30 grams of salt, to a gallon of water. He has given as high as 
4 ounces daily. 

* Trypan Blue. Trypan blue is a complex substance derived 
from toluidine and amidonaphtholsulphonate of sodium. It has been 
used with good results in the treatment of piroplasmosis of animals, 
especially of cattle and dogs. Nuttall used a 1 to 5 per cent, solu- 



462 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

tion in sterile cold water. Doses are: for small dogs 2 mils (30 
minims), large dogs 15 mils (one-half ounce) intravenously or sub- 
cutaneously. Intravenous administration is to be preferred on ac- 
count of liability of abscess formation from hypodermic use. Dose 
for cattle is 150 mils (5 ounces) to 200 mils (6y 2 ounces). We 
have given 100 mils (3% ounces) of a one per cent, solution to a 
full grown setter without producing any alarming symptoms. The 
tissues are all stained blue from injections of this remedy but grad- 
ually clear up. 

* Scarlet Red. Scarlet red is an aniline dye which has only 
recently been used as a stain. 

It occurs as a dark reddish-brown powder, soluble in 15 parts of 
chloroform, easily soluble in oils, slightly soluble in alcohol and 
ether and insoluble in water. It has been found useful as a dress- 
ing for healthy ulcers and wounds and to promote the proliferation 
of skin. Hoare says, " It should not be left on longer than 48 hours, 
or marked irritation will occur." It is employed in the form of an 
ointment of from 4 to 8 per cent. 

Scarlet Red Ointment is a salve containing 8 per cent, of scarlet 
red, 2 per cent, of oil of eucalyptol and 90 per cent, of petrolatum. 

OXIDIZERS AND DEOXIDIZERS 

Oxidizers act by liberating oxygen and are quickly destroyed. 
As a rule they are only medium grade disinfectants but good deodor- 
izers. They quickly destroy many colors and are used as bleaches. 
Most important are: 

Liquor Ilydrogenii Dioxidi — Hydrogen peroxide. 
Potassii Permanganas — Permanganate of potash. 
Sodii Per Boras. 
^ Chlorine. 

OXYGENIUM — OXYGEN 

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, slightly soluble in 
water and neutral to ordinary indicators. For medical purposes 
it should be neutral to litmus and free from chlorine or ozone. 
Oxygen is marketed in cylinders under considerable pressure. The 
amount of oxygen is usually determined by weight. 

Action. In health the inhalation of oxygen has no effect other 
than to increase the rate of the heart and raise blood pressure. 

Therapeutics. Oxygen is used in veterinary medicine almost 
entirely in the treatment of parturient paresis of cattle and in this 
condition there is doubt of its being any more efficient than injec- 
tions of sterile air. In human medicine it is used in conditions 

* Unofficial. 



LIQUOR HYDROGENII DIOXIDE 463 

of cyanosis, dyspnea and circulatory failure. It is also used in 
nitrous oxide anesthesia. 

Administration. In parturient paresis oxygen is used to in- 
flate the udder. For action upon the circulatory and respiratory 
systems, the gas is conducted to a mask or tent held over the face or 
through a tube in the nose and administered by inhalation. 

LIQUOR HYDROGENII DIOXIDI 

Synonym. Hydrogen Peroxide. EL 2 . 

This is a slightly acid aqueous solution of hydrogen dioxide con- 
taining 3 per cent, of the gas by weight and capable of yielding 10 
times its volume of oxygen. It is a colorless, odorless liquid, of 
slightly acidulous taste and produces foam in the mouth, and, on 
contact with blood, pus and organic material. It is liable to de- 
teriorate with age, exposure to heat and prolonged agitation. If 
the stopper of the bottle is coated with paraffin or is replaced by a 
plug of cotton the deterioration is delayed. 

■ Doses. H. I j— ij ; 30.— 60. D. 5 j— ij ; 4.-8. 

Hydrogen dioxide is a very powerful, nontoxic, nonirritating 
antiseptic on account of its readily giving up oxygen when brought 
into contact with the fluids of the body or pus. When applied to a 
suppurating wound it effervesces, causing foaming by the liberation 
of oxygen, the pus is discharged, leaving the wound very clean and 
protected by a delicate coagulum. There is no effect from its use 
internally because it is readily converted into oxygen and water in 
the stomach. Subcutaneously or intravenously it may cause sudden 
death by gas emboli in the blood. This may also follow its use 
in serous cavities. A 20 per cent, solution of the official 1 prepara- 
tion is fatal to most pus organisms and other non-spore bearing ones. 
Its chief disadvantages are its brief action and liability to deteriora- 
tion while its advantages are freedom from odor, irritation and 
toxicity. 

Uses. It is particularly valuable in the preliminary treat- 
ment of septic wounds, abscess cavities, and fistulous tracts where 
it acts not only as a disinfectant but also mechanically removes 
exudates, blood clots, etc. It is either used in the official solution ot 
diluted from 1 ; 1 — 3. It should not be injected into deep cavities 
unless there is free exit as the additional pressure may cause serious 
results. Furthermore it should not be injected into large serous 
cavities (peritoneal or pleural). It is a very valuable wash for 
stomatitis, pharyngitis, etc., for which it should be diluted with 
two to three parts of water. 



464 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

POTASSII PERMANGANAS — POTASSIUM 
PERMANGANATE 

Potassium permanganate occurs as slender dark prisms, odorless 
and of a sweetish astringent taste, soluble in 15 parts of water, 
decomposed by alcohol. 

Incompatibles. It is incompatible with almost everything. 
It forms explosives with oxidizable substances, especially organic 
matter as alcohol or glycerin. 

Doses. H. 5 ss — j ; 2. — 4. In pill or drench after meals. 
D. gr. ss— j ; 0.03—0.065. 

Action. If used in pure form or in concentration it is a mild 
irritant and caustic. If administered in excessive doses it causes 
all the symptoms of corrosive poisoning. It gives up oxygen in the 
presence of organic matter and consequently is a germicide and 
deodorant. Its usefulness, however, is somewhat lessened by its 
rapid deoxidation which leaves it inert. 

Uses. 1. As a Deodorant and Antiseptic. In such conditions 
as stomatitis, fetid ulcers, metritis, etc. in 1 to 2 per cent, solution. 

2. Antiseptic for the Hands. - Use a saturated solution and re- 
move the stain with hydrogen peroxide or oxalic acid. 

3. Poisoning by Morphine or Other Alkaloids. Potassium 
permanganate is the chemical antidote for the alkaloids and is gener- 
ally used in dilute solutions to wash out the stomach. There are 
no other indications for the internal use of the drug. 

* Acetozone. (Acetyl — • Benzoyl — Peroxide) occurs as a 
white crystalline powder soluble in 1000 parts of water, in 20 parts 
of oil, slightly soluble in alcohol, fairly so in ether and chloro- 
form, but slowly decomposing in all of these solvents with the ex- 
ception of petroleum oil. It also decomposes on contact with or- 
ganic matter and alkalies. It is marketed only in a 50 per cent. 
mixture with an inert powder. It evolves hydrogen dioxide in the 
presence of water. It is usually employed in a solution of 20 to 30 
grains to a quart of water, and this may be given in doses of 2 to 5 
ounces every few hours to a dog as an intestinal or gastric anti- 
septic. It may be useful in treating purulent conjunctivitis or 
keratitis in strengths of 5 grains to the pint of water, or may be 
employed as a dusting powder, 10 per cent, with boric acid, talcum, 
zinc oxide, etc. 

SODII PERBORAS — SODIUM PERBORATE 

This occurs as a white, granular salt, odorless, having a saline 
taste, soluble in water, and evolves hydrogen peroxide in aqueous 
solutions. It should contain at least 9 per cent, of available oxygen. 
* Unofficial. 



DEOXIDIZERS — HALOGENS 465 

It has been recommended as an antiseptic for wounds upon which 
it may be used as a dusting powder or in freshly prepared solutions. 
For the action of chlorine see the group of halogens. 

CARBO — CARBON 

Carbon is official in two forms, Carbo animalis, and carbo ligni. 

CARBO ANIMALIS, ANIMAL CHARCOAL 

Synonym. Bone Black 

This is prepared by burning bones in closed iron cylinders. It 
is composed of carbon, calcium phosphate and carbonate. The 
purified variety has the earthy salts removed by hydrochloric acid. 

CARBO LIGNI — WOOD CHARCOAL 

This is prepared by partial burning of soft wood. That made 
from willow is supposed to be the best. 

Doses. H. I j— ij ; 30.— 60. D. 3 ss— ij ; 2.-8. 

Charcoal has the power of absorbing many times its volume of 
gases. It is an oxidizing agent owing to condensation of oxygen in 
its pores and may serve as a deodorant. Thorough wetting destroys 
its activity. It is not absorbed so acts locally. 

Uses. Charcoal is used externally as a desiccant and absorbent 
for wounds either alone or combined with other agents. It may be 
of some service as an absorbent in flatulence but is not very service- 



able for large animals. 



DEOXIDIZERS 



These agents absorb oxygen. Most of them belong to the sul- 
phur or sulphide group, most prominent of which are Sulphur Di- 
oxide, Sulphurous Acid, Sodium Sulphite, Bisulphite and Thiosul- 
phite; Ferrous Sulphate also belongs to this group. These agents 
are discussed elsewhere. 

HALOGENS 

The members of the halogen group of drugs used for disin- 
fectants and antiseptics are the free elements chlorine and iodine and 
those compounds from which they are easily liberated. The halogens 
enter into combination with all organic matter by withdrawing hydro- 
gen from it and forming the corresponding halogen acid, and at 
the same time set free oxygen. The halogens are all disinfectant, but 
bromine and fluorine are not used for this purpose because they are 
too irritant and corrosive. 



466 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

Chlorine is generally used in the form of the hypochlorites which 
easily liberate chlorine. Chlorinated lime (improperly called chlor- 
ide of lime), bleaching powder, is a mixture of hypochlorites. 

Iodine is employed in the free state as the tincture, Lugol's solu- 
tion, ointment and in various combinations with organic matter of 
which iodoform may be taken as an example. 

Tincture of iodine is a favorite disinfectant for operating areas 
and infected wounds. For details of the halogens see p. 371. 

MISCELLANEOUS DISINFECTANTS 
FORMALDEHYDUM 

Synonym. Formic Aldehyde 

This is a colorless gas formed by oxidizing methyl alcohol. It is 
official in a 37 per cent, solution in water, under the name of Liquor 
Formaldehydi. Formalin is a similar product. Formalin or solu- 
tion of formaldehyde is a clear colorless liquid, having a pungent 
odor and caustic taste. It is miscible in all proportions with water 
and alcohol. 

Action. Formaldehyde is one of the most powerful germicides 
and has the advantage of being volatile and very penetrating. It 
prohibits the growth of bacteria in 1 : 500 to 1 : 20,000 (pure 
formaldehyde) ; formalin requires 2% times as much. It also checks 
growth in 1 : 30,000 of most organisms and solutions of 1 : 2% per 
cent, kill most bacteria together with their spores, according to spe- 
cies and time of exposure. The gas is more active, in the presence of 
moisture. It surpasses most disinfectants in penetrating power and 
does not injure metal or clothing, so is very serviceable for disinfect- 
ing rooms, etc. 

Formaldehyde vapor is very irritating to the mucous membranes 
even in dilute solutions but animals and man soon gain a tolerance 
for it. It toughens the unbroken skin, making it rough and white, 
and produces anesthesia. Strong solutions or repeated applications 
may lead to superficial necrosis. These effects are produced by 
coagulation of the proteids with which it forms actual combinations. 
It has no effect upon pepsin, rennin or malt but diminishes the ac- 
tivity of papain, trypsin and amylopsin. When inhaled, even for a 
long time, there is little if any effect aside from some local irrita- 
tion, which may lead to bronchitis or pneumonia. Intravenoiis in- 
jections of 1 : 5000 in physiological saline produce no physiological 
action. Oral doses have little if any immediate action aside from 
irritation. 

The antidote to local action is ammonia or the ammonium salts. 
The irritant action of formaldehyde can be largely eliminated by 
using it in the form of some of its condensation products, from which 
it iseliminated slowly. It has the property of forming more or less 



FORMALDEHYDUM — FORMALIN 467 

staple condensation products with many substances, such as proteids 
(Glutol), carbohydrates (Dextroform, Amyloform), phenols, urea, 
tannin (tannoform), Ammonia (Urotropin) and polymers (Para- 
form). 

Therapeutics. 1. Disinfectant. Formaldehyde has been used 
for sterilizing dressings and surgical material but on account of its 
action on the hands, and irritating vapor, has lost favor. 

2. Disinfectant for Rooms and Stables. Formaldehyde may be 
used to disinfect rooms in any of the following ways: 

a. By soaking sheets in formalin and hanging them in the room. 

b. By heating a solution of formaldehyde and thus liberating 

the gas. 

c. By burning paraform candles or heating paraforrn. 

d. The Board of Health of New York City recommends the ad- 

dition of one pound of fresh quicklime to a mixture of 6 
ounces of aluminum sulphate and 8 ounces of solution of 
formaldehyde for each 1000 cubic feet to be disinfected. 

e. Adding potassium permanganate to solution of formaldehyde. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry recommends the follow- 
ing: For each 1000 cubic feet to be disinfected: add 1 
pound of potassium permanganate to 20 ounces of formalin 
contained in a large metal or enameled vessel. 
With all methods of disinfecting with formalin, the rooms should 
be tightly sealed and the gas allowed to act from 12 to 24 hours. 
It is more effective in moist air than dry, therefore steam should be 
provided if possible. Formaldehyde gas does not kill vermin. Rats, 
guinea pigs, and rabbits have been found alive after many hours 
exposure. Ammonia almost immediately neutralizes the gas. 

3. Formalin is often Serviceable in Grease Heel in 0.25 per cent, 
solution applied under bandage. As a disinfectant for instruments 
use a 1 — 2 per cent, solution. 

4. Septicemia and Purpura Hemorrhagica. McClelland recom- 
mends the intravenous use of formaldehyde for the treatment of these 
diseases. He uses one dram of formalin or solution of formaldehyde 
to two pints of water. 

5. White Scours. It has been recommended in the treatment of 
white scours in calves, and acute gastric tympany of cattle. Some 
of its preparations are excellent intestinal antiseptics and astringents 
(Tannoform). 

6. Parasitic Shin Diseases, especially for those caused by the 
vegetable parasites ; also to disinfect foul wounds. 

7. To Remove Warts. It is claimed that warts may be removed 
by rubbing formalin in them with a stick. 

8. Mastitis. Frost recommends daily doses of 25 to 30 mils of 
solution of formaldehyde in capsule or milk in the treatment of 
streptococcic mastitis. 



468 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

B Liquoris Formaldehydi 3 j 

Aqua; Destillatae q. s ad. O. ij-ijss 

M. Ft. Sol. 

Sig. For daily intravenous injection for a horse with septicaemia or 
purpura hemorrhagica. 

White Scours of Calves. 

fy Bacterol. 

Liquoris Formaldehydi aa. ms. xv 

Water or Milk O. j 

M. 

Sig. Give at one dose. 

For Collar Galls. 

R Liquoris Formaldehydi 3 ss 

Sulphuris Sublimati 3 v 

Adipis 3 v 

M. Ft. Ung. 

Sig. Apply to parts. 

Pruritis. 

R Liquoris Formaldehydi 1. 

Olei Oliva? 10. 

M. 

Sig. Apply to parts. 

PARAFORMALDEHYDUM — PARAFORM 

Synonyms. Trioxmethylene — Trif ormal 

Paraform occurs as friable masses or as a white insoluble powder 
often pressed into tablets. It sublimes slowly at 100° C. and melts at 
170° C. If heated under proper conditions it is decomposed into 
formaldehyde and is used for the disinfection of rooms, 2 grams be- 
ing required for each cubic meter (35 cubic feet) or about 2 ounces 
(57 grams) for each 1000 cubic feet. 

Paraform also frees formaldehyde slowly at the body tempera- 
ture so that it serves as a more powerful intestinal antiseptic than 
betanaphthol, but is irritant. It may be administered to small ani- 
mals in doses of 3 — 8 grains every two hours. Larger doses are 
cathartic while small ones are constipating. It does not cause serious 
poisoning even in large doses. 

* Glutol. This is an odorless, nonirritating powder formed by 
combination of gelatin with formaldehyde. The formalin is liber- 
ated by action of the tissues. It is used as a dusting powder upon 
open wounds where it forms a firm antiseptic scab. 

* Unofficial. 



HEXAMETHYLENAMINE — UROTROPIN 469 

HEXAMETHYLENAMINA.— HEXAMETHYLENAMINE 

Synonyms. Urotropin — Formin — Hexainethylentetramine, 
Amninofornt, Cystogin 

This product is formed by the action of ammonia upon formalde- 
hyde. It occurs as colorless, odorless crystals, having a sweetish taste, 
afterwards a bitter taste; soluble in 1,6 parts of water, and in 10 of 
alcohol. 

Doses. H. 5 j — ij ; 4. — 8. Dog, gr. xv — xxx; 0.3 — 2. 

Urotropin is rapidly absorbed but produces no systemic action. 
It appears in the urine within a few minutes after administration 
and if the urine is acid it is partly converted into formaldehyde 
which produces its usual antiseptic action. Urotropin has no such 
action in alkaline urine but the effect may be obtained in man at 
least by administration of acid sodium phosphate to acidify the 
urine. The drug has also been found in the milk, bile, pancreatic 
juice, cerebrospinal fluid, blood, saliva, synovial fluids, nasal and 
bronchial secretions and pleural effusions in man. 

Therapeutics. Its uses depend upon its power to liberate 
formaldehyde which takes place in acid solutions. It is very useful 
in infections of the genitourinary tract if the urine is acid. Whether 
the urine of herbivora may be made acid by administration of acid 
sodium phosphate is questionable. The two drugs should not be 
given at the same time as they are incompatible. The sodium salt 
should be given some time previous to the other. 

In acid urine it may either increase the acidity until it is irritat- 
ing or in itself is irritant, causing the usual run of symptoms of irri- 
tation of these parts. 

There is considerable controversy over its beneficial action in 
other conditions because although urotropin has been found in so 
many parts of the body there is no evidence that it will be decom- 
posed into formaldehyde. 

* Citarin (Anhydromethylencitrate of Sodium). A white crys- 
talline powder, of pleasant acidulous taste, soluble in water, insolu- 
ble in alcohol, frees formaldehyde in the blood. Used particularly 
in gout. 

Doses. D. gr. x — xv; 0.6 — 1. 

* Helmintal (Urotropin Anhydromethylencitrate). Eine color- 
less crystals, slightly soluble in water, decomposed by alkalies and 
slowly by dilute acids with freeing of formaldehyde. Uses and doses 
similar to urotropin. 

* Tannopin (Tannon), contains tannin 87 per cent., urotropin 13 
per cent. It is a brownish tasteless powder, insoluble in water or 

* Unofficial. 



470 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

dilute acids, decomposes slowly in the intestines, so that it has the 
antiseptic action of urotropin and the astringent action of tannin. 
Dose same as for urotropin. 

* Tannoform. This is a similar compound of tannin and 
formaldehyde. It resembles the action of the preceding drug but 
is more irritant. According to Frohner it is the most efficient desic- 
cant antiseptic for new or old wounds. Used alone or with starch. 
Internally it is astringent and antiseptic. 

Doses. H. and C. §ij— iij ; 60.— 90. 
Dog grs. xv — xxx ; 1. — 2. 

* CHINOSOL 

Oxyquinolin Sulphate — Normal Oxyquinilin Sulphate 

Chinosol is a yellow crystalline powder, of saffron-like odor and 
burning taste, is readily soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, 
insoluble in ether. 

Action and Uses. Chinosol is said to be nontoxic. It is 
somewhat more powerful as an antiseptic than corrosive sublimate or 
phenol, having been found to exert an antiseptic action in 1 — 10,000 
solutions. On the other hand it is a weaker germicide or disinfectant 
than phenol or corrosive sublimate. It does not form compounds 
with the tissues or injure mucous membranes or tissues, but is in- 
compatible with alkalies and salts of mercury and iron. It is claimed 
not to cause harmful irritation in any strength, to possess analgesic 
properties and to be a deodorant. It is used particularly as an anti- 
septic for mucous membranes starting with solutions as weak as 
1 : 1000 or 2000 and increasing gradually to 1 : 500 if the patient 
will tolerate it. The usual strength recommended is 1 : 1000. Much 
stronger solutions may be employed as a wound dressing. Hobday 
says that it is somewhat toxic for the cat either from administration 
per os or from applications to the skin, but that it is not rapidly ab- 
sorbed from the intact skin of the dog. 

ACIDUM BORICUM — BORIC ACID 

Synonym. Boracic Acid 

Boric acid occurs as a white unctuous powder, or as colorless 
transparent scales ; is odorless, of a faintly bitter taste, is slowly 
soluble in 18 parts of water, in 15 of alcohol and 4 of glycerin. 

Preparations. Olyceritum Boroglycerini ■ — Glycerite of Boro- 
glycerin. 30 per cent, of boric acid. This preparation is more 
soluble in water than boric acid. 

Unguentum Acidi Borici. 10 per cent, in petrolatum and paraf- 
fin. 

* Unofficial. 



BENZOIC ACID AND THE BENZOATES 471 

Action and Uses. Boric acid is a weak antiseptic but not a dis- 
infectant although it destroys some moulds. It is protectant and 
soothing when applied to inflamed mucous membranes or raw surfaces. 
The continued use of even small doses internally causes severe gastro- 
intestinal trouble. 

Boric acid is used mostly as a wash for irritated mucous mem- 
branes, conjunctivitis, cystitis, etc., in from 2 to 4 per cent, solution. 
The glycerite is a good application for many irritable skin diseases, 
eczema, etc. Boric acid is frequently used as a dusting powder for 
wounds, either alone or in combination with talcum or other diluent. 
Boric acid is somewhat eliminated by the urine and at one time was 
employed as a urinary disinfectant but its use has been abandoned 
for more favorably acting drugs. 

SODII BORAS — SODIUM BORATE 

Synonym. Borax 

Sodium borate is a white powder or colorless transparent crys- 
tals, odorless, of a sweetish alkaline taste, soluble in 17 parts of 
water, insoluble in alcohol, but freely soluble in glycerin. 

Action and Uses. Borax is a less active antiseptic than boric 
acid. It may be used as a mild astringent and antiseptic collyrium 
and as a gargle or mouth wash. It may be used in somewhat stronger 
solutions for the latter conditions. 

Sodium perborate is discussed under the oxidizers, p. 464. 

BENZOIC ACID AND THE BENZOATES 
ACIDUM BENZOICUM — BENZOIC ACID 

This is an organic acid obtained from benzoin or prepared syn- 
thetically. It occurs as colorless or almost colorless scales or needles 
having an agreeable odor and pungent acid taste. It is slightly 
soluble in water but freely soluble in alcohol. 

SODII BENZOAS — SODIUM BENZOATE 

Sodium benzoate occurs as a white amorphous, odorless powder, 
having a sweetish astringent taste, soluble in water and alcohol. 

Benzoic acid and the benzoates really belong to the phenol group 
of antiseptics. They are mild antiseptics and differ from phenol in 
not being toxic to the central nervous system. They are also 
antipyretics but are not often used as such. 

The benzoates are good preservatives and as such have been used 
in the preservation of many foods ; they have no important uses in- 
ternally, but may be used as mild antiseptics externally. 



472 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

THERAPEUTIC CLASSIFICATION OF DISINFECTANTS 

General Disinfectants. There are many disinfectants used for 
general purposes. For cesspools, copperas or lime, chlorinated lime, 
naphthalin and the cheaper preparations of cresol are generally em- 
ployed. 

For Stables. All litter and articles of little value should be 
burned. Blankets may be disinfected by steam, or boiling, or by 
soaking in a disinfectant solution. Harnesses, halters, etc., by a dis- 
infectant solution ; woodwork after thorough cleaning, by bichloride 
of mercury, coal tar preparations or formalin. On account of the 
difficulty in sealing barns and stables the last named preparation is 
not of great service in many cases. 

Surgical Disinfectants. One of the most important uses of 
germicides or disinfectants is in surgical technique and aseptic or 
antiseptic handling of wounds. Bichloride of mercury is one of the 
most popular disinfectants for general use. It is cheap, soluble and 
very effective but possesses the disadvantages of being very poison- 
ous, corrosive to instruments, irritant to tissues and is readily decom- 
posed into inactive compounds by proteids. It is said that the 
last mentioned objection may be overcome by the addition of a weak 
acid (citric or tartaric). For the preparation of the field of opera- 
tion a solution of 1 : 1000 or 1 : 500 should be used and preferably in 
alcohol. See Harrington's solution, p. 431. For large wounds and 
cavities 1 : 10,000—5000 and for small wounds 1 : 2000 to 1 : 1000. 
It should not be used on serous surfaces as it is irritant. 

Phenol by many is not regarded as being so efficient but neverthe- 
less is widely used. It is particularly destructive to pus organisms. 
It is soluble, is not very much affected by proteids and only dulls 
metallic instruments. On the other hand, it is very toxic and has 
a benumbing action on the hands. It is used in aqueous solutions 
of from 1 to 5 per cent, upon open wounds and in the pure form for 
knives and other instruments which are injured by boiling. 

Formaldehyde is a very active disinfectant but is too irritating 
for general purposes. Solutions of from 1 to 2 per cent, of 
formalin are occasionally used for wounds and a 2 per cent, solution 
for instruments. 

Practical Disinfection of the Hands. There are several meth- 
ods for disinfection of the hands of the operator. A few will be 
mentioned. Fiirbringer's method is first, to clean the nails well 
and scrub the hands with soap and water and brush for several 
minutes, then soak in alcohol for at least one minute, and then plunge 
into a 1 : 500 aqueous solution of bichloride of mercury while still 
wet. The alcohol aids in removing the soap and grease from the 
creases of the hands and at the same time favors the penetration of 
the antiseptic. Another method is to scrub the hands as mentioned 



DISINFECTANTS FOR MUCOUS MEMBRANES 473 

above, then dip them into a warm saturated solution of potassium 
permanganate for a few minutes or until they are well stained, and 
then decolorize with a warm saturated solution of oxalic acid. 

Weir's Method. Scrub the hands with green soap and brush 
under running hot water, then clean around and under the nails with 
soft wood, then make a paste of equal parts of chlorinated lime and 
sodium carbonate and water, and rub this cream over the hands un- 
til all grittiness disappears, which will require about 5 minutes. 
Push the paste around and under the nails with a sterile piece of 
orange wood and finally rinse with sterile water. Harrington's 
solution or the acetone pyxol method may be used if the hands of the 
operator will stand them. 

Field of Operation. It is taken for granted that any necessary 
shaving will be done before any of the following means of dis- 
infection are employed : 

1. Scrub with soap and water, dry with alcohol, apply two 
paintings of tincture of iodine. 

2. Harrington's solution. Scrub the parts, dry with alcohol, 
apply Harrington's solution with scrubbing for two minutes, wash 
off with alcohol. A 1 : 1000 solution of bichloride of mercury in 
TO per cent, alcohol is very efficient. 

3. Pyxol, acetone and alcohol method. This method has come 
into considerable prominence as a disinfectant for the field of opera- 
tion and surgeon's hands in human medicine, and has been used in 
veterinary medicine. It consists of sponging the already cleaned 
surface for two minutes with pyxol 2, alcohol 60, and acetone 40 ; 
then rinse in sterile water. The hands should be soaked for the 
same length of time. 

DISINFECTANTS FOR MUCOUS MEMBRANES 

Eye. Boric acid, silver nitrate and organic preparations of 
silver, copper sulphate, yellow mercuric oxide ointment, boric acid 
ointment, pyoktanin, zinc sulphate, bichloride of mercury. 

Nose. Menthol, boric acid, silver salts and those mentioned 
above, hydrogen peroxide. 

Mouth and Throat. Boric acid, silver preparations, hydrogen 
peroxide, mercuric chloride, ferric chloride, iodine. 

Vagina. Iodine, Lugol's solution, creolin, liquor cresolis com- 
positus, phenol, ichthyol, mercuric chloride. 

Uterus. Iodine, iodoform, and any of the above. 

Urethra and Bladder. Boric acid, zinc sulphate, potassium 
permanganate, silver preparations. 

Rectum. Boric acid, silver salts, glycerin, ichthyol. 

Skin Diseases. Tar, oil of tar, oil of cade, balsam of Peru, 
benzoin, salicylic acid, resorcin, ichthyol, formaldehyde, mercuric- 
chloride, boric acid, sulphur, iodine. 



474 GERMICIDES — DISINFECTANTS 

Wounds. Almost any of the antiseptics or disinfectants. 

Respiratory Tract. For inhalation volatile oils, turpentine, 
eucalyptol, camphor, creosote, guaiacol. 

For use after absorption on account of elimination through the 
respiratory mucous membrane, the same agents per os. 

Gastro-Intestinal. For action upon the stomach the following 
may be used : phenolsulphonates, creosote, phenol, salicylic acid, cre- 
olin, turpentine and other volatile oils. For action upon the in- 
testines it is necessary for the drug to pass through the stomach 
unchanged. Sometimes agents are given for this action in keratin or 
salol coated pills. The best examples of intestinal antiseptics are 
salol, aspirin, naphtholin, betanaphthol and ichthyol. 

Urinary Tract. These agents are to be given per mouth and 
on account of their elimination through the urine will inhibit or re- 
tard the growth of bacteria in the passage. Principal ones are: 
urotropin, salicylic acid, and its compounds, and the volatile oils 
of copaiba, cubebs, sandalwood and turpentine. 

For Surgical Supplies. 

Dry superheated steam is the best for instruments and dressings. 
The next best is dry heat. Instruments may be boiled or placed in 
a solution of disinfectant. Repeated boiling spoils the temper of 
cutting instruments so that it is better to place them in a strong 
disinfectant. Catgut is sterilized by boiling in cumol which has 
a higher boiling point than water. 



CHAPTEE XXVIII 
PROTECTIVES 

Pkotectives may be conveniently divided into emollients, 
demulcents and dusting powders. 

Emollients are agents which soften and relax the parts to which 
they are applied, while demulcents sooth and protect the parts. 
There is no sharp line of division between the two groups as some sub- 
stances act in both ways. As a general rule, the term emollient is 
used to specify those substances which are applied to the skin, while 
the term demulcent is restricted to those applied to mucous mem- 
branes. Dusting powders form another group of agents which are 
applied to the skin for protectant and soothing effect. They should 
be free from grittiness, dry and insoluble. 

EMOLLIENTS 

The most commonly used emollients are : 

Lard Expressed oil of almond 

Suet Linseed oil 

Wool fat Petrolatum 

Olive oil Wax 

Spermaceti Glycerin 

Emollients have no action except through mechanical means. 
They relieve irritation of the skin or diseased surfaces by preventing 
the part from drying, or protecting it from dust, bacteria or gases. 
They soften the skin by penetrating it and thus relieve tension and 
pain in inflamed parts. Finally they are used as vehicles and to 
promote the absorption of other drugs. 

ADEPS — LARD 

Lard is the purified internal fat of the abdomen of the hog. 
Adeps Benzoinatus, benzoinated lard, is lard to which 1 per cent, 
of gum benzoin is added as a preservative. 

SEVUM PRiEPARATUM — SUET 

This is the internal fat of the abdomen of the sheep purified 

by boiling and straining. 

475 



476 PROTECTIVES 



ADEPS LAN-ffi — WOOL FAT 

Wool fat is the purified wool fat of sheep freed from water. 

Preparation. Adeps Lance Hydrosus — Hydrous wool fat. 

Hydrous wool fat or lanolin is prepared by triturating wool fat 
with water. It should contain not less than 25 nor more than 30 
per cent, of water. 

Wool fat is used as a base for ointments and has the advantage 
of being miscible with twice its weight of water and is consequently 
valuable when any aqueous preparation is used in ointment. 

OLEUM OLIV^I — OLIVE OIL 

Olive oil is a fixed oil obtained from the ripe fruit of Olea euro- 
pcea. Olive oil is an emollient and protective externally. Internally 
it is nutritive, demulcent and laxative. It is frequently prescribed 
as a laxative for dogs and cats. Dogs, 2 drams to an ounce, cats 1 
to 4 drams. 

OLEUM GOSSYPPII SEMENIS — COTTON SEED OIL 

This is a fixed oil expressed from the seed of the different species 
of Gossypium. 

It is almost identical in action and uses to olive oil. 

OLEUM AMYGDALiE EXPRESSUM — EXPRESSED OIL OF 

ALMONDS 

This is a fixed oil obtained from the kernels of varieties of 
Prunus amygdalus. It is emollient, protectant and nutrient but is 
not often used in veterinary practice. 

PETROLATUM 

Synonyms. Vaseline, Cosmolene, Petroleum Jelly 

Petrolatum is a mixture of semisolid hydrocarbons obtained from 
petroleum. It occurs as an unctuous mass varying in color from 
yellowish to light amber. 

Preparation. Petrolatum Album — White Petrolatum. 

White petrolatum is petrolatum nearly decolorized. 

PETROLATUM LIQUIDUM — LIQUID PETROLATUM 

Liquid petrolatum is a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons obtained 
from petroleum. The XT. S. P. recognizes two varieties, heavy and 
light. 

Petrolatum and petrolatum album are only used as ointment bases. 



GLYCERINUM — GLYCERIN 477 

They possess the advantage of not becoming rancid but they are not 
absorbed through the skin and do not readily penetrate animal and 
vegetable parasites. Furthermore they are not easily saponified and 
consequently are difficult to remove. 

Liquid petrolatum is similar to several trade named drugs, white 
albolene, liquid vaseline, petrolax and numerous others. It is used 
as a vehicle for oily sprays for the nose and throat in man. It is 
useful as a laxative for dogs and cats. An enema of liquid petrola- 
tum will be found useful to soften hard feces in cases of impactions. 
See purgatives, p. 237. 

PARAFFINUM — PARAFFIN 

Paraffin is a purified mixture of solid hydrocarbons usually ob- 
tained from petroleum. Paraffin is not often used in veterinary med- 
icine although it may be added to ointments to give them firmness. 
It is used in human surgery in the treatment of facial blemishes. 

CETACEUM — SPERMACETI 

Spermaceti is the concrete fatty substance obtained from the 
head of the sperm whale. It is a bland substance and used only to 
give consistence or a higher melting point to ointments and cerates. 

CERA — WAX 

Wax occurs in two forms, Cera Flava and Cera Alba. 

Cera Flava, yellow wax is obtained by melting and purifying 
the honey-comb of the bee. It is commonly called " beeswax." 

Cera Alba. White wax is the same substance bleeched by the air 
and sunlight. Wax is only used to give consistence to ointments 
or in the preparation of cerates. 

GLYCERINUM — GLYCERIN 

Synonym. Glycerole 

Glycerin is a liquid obtained by the hydrolysis of vegetable or 
animal fats or fixed oils, purified by distillation. It is a clear color- 
less liquid, of a thick syrupy consistence, slight characteristic odor 
and sweetish taste. It is miscible with water or alcohol; insoluble 
in chloroform, ether, or fixed and volatile oils. 

Glycerin is irritant to the skin and mucous membranes due to 
the abstraction of water from them but when mixed with two or three 
parts of water is emollient. It is used as a vehicle for other drugs 
and as a protectant for slight wounds such as cracks and small fis- 
sures of the skin. A small amount (1 — 2 drams in small animals) 
injected in the rectum will stimulate peristalsis and cause the ex- 



478 PROTECTIVES 

pulsion of feces. According to the observations of Hertz, glycerin is 
an irritant to the anal canal but not to the rectum. Glycerin is 
slightly antiseptic probably through osmotic action. It is very use- 
ful as a solvent for many drugs and as a vehicle for their external 
application and internal administration. 

DEMULCENTS 

Demulcents are mucilaginous substances used to sooth and pro- 
tect mucous membranes. They do this by forming a protective cov- 
ering over them and thus prevent irritation from the secretions or 
foreign matter. They are used 1. As a basis for cough remedies, 
in which case they are soothing and protectant to the pharyngeal 
mucous membrane. 2. In the treatment of poisoning. They act 
by coating over the gastrointestinal mucous membrane and at the 
same time prevent the absorption of most agents. 3. They are added 
to solutions of irritant drugs to prevent irritation of the stomach. 
The most important are: 

Acacia Starch 

Tragacanth Glycyrrhiza 

Linum Althaea 

ACACIA 

Synonym. Gum Arabic 

Acacia is the dried gummy exudation from a tree Acacia Senegal 
and other African species of acacia. Insoluble in alcohol, slowly 
but almost completely soluble in twice its weight of water forming a 
mucilaginous liquid. 

Preparations. Mucilago Acacice — Mucilage of acacia. 

Pulvis Cretce Compositus. Compound chalk powder. 

Uses. Acacia is used as a demulcent and excipient to hold emul- 
sions, mixtures, etc. 

TRAGACANTHA — TRAGACANTH 

Tragacanth is the spontaneously dried gummy exudation from the 
stems of Astragalus gummifer or other species of astragalus. 

Tragacanth is used similarly to acacia. On account of its in- 
solubility it is used to hold heavy oils and powders in suspension. 

LINUM — LINSEED 

Linseed is the seed of the common flax. When unground it 
forms a mucilage with water. When ground and mixed with two 
or three times its weight of boiling water it forms a fairly firm mass 
which is used as a poultice (flax seed poultice). 



DUSTING POWDERS 479 

AMYLUM — STARCH 

Synonym. Corn Starch 

Amylum is the starch separated from the grain of Zea Mays. 

Starch occurs in the form of a fine white powder or in friable 
white masses. It is insoluble in cold water or alcohol. When 
mixed with boiling water it forms a transparent gelatinous mixture. 
Starch is used as a dusting powder and protective in erythema and 
chafing. Since starch is decomposed by the heat and moisture of 
the tissues it is better to add boric acid to it as a preservative. Starch 
poultice or jelly is sometimes used to soften and remove crusts in 
chronic inflammations of the skin. Starch water is a soothing in- 
jection in irritations of the rectum. It is prepared by mixing about 
a teaspoonful of starch in 2 ounces of water and boiling until the 
mixture becomes translucent. Then dilute with water to make one 
pint, or it may be prepared by boiling the starch with the total 
amount of water at the outset. 

GLYCYRRHIZA — LICORICE ROOT 

This is the root of Glycyrrhiza glabra typica (Spanish licorice) or 
Glycyrrhiza glabra glandulifera (Kussian licorice). 
Preparations and Doses. 
Glycyrrhiza. 

Extractum Glycyrrhiza? Purum. Pure extract. 
Fluidextractum Glycyrrhiza?. 
Mistura Glycyrrhiza?. Brown Mixture. 

Doses. Dog, 5 j — ijss; 4. — 10. 

Licorice is a very feeble drug. It is a popular remedy for coughs 
and colds in which case it serves as a demulcent. It is more largely 
used to cover the disagreeable taste of other drugs. 

The following substances are occasionally used as demulcents : 

Sassafras Medulla — Sassafras pith 

Umulus — Slippery elm bark 

Althgea — Marshmallow. 

DUSTING POWDERS 

Dusting powders are used to protect the skin. Some remedies are 
applied as dusting powders for their antiseptic properties but they 
are not included in this group. The most important are : 

Talcum Zinc Oxide 

Kaolin Chalk 

Starch Magnesium carbonate 
Lycopodium 



480 PROTECTIVES 

TALCUM PURIFICATUM — PURIFIED TALC 

Synonyms. Talc, Venetian Talc, Magnesium Silicate, Soapstone 

Talc is only used as a protective and diluent. 

5 Talci Purificati 3 iy 

Acidi Borici 3 j 

Zinci Oxidi 5 iij 

M. Ft. Pulver. 

Sig. Use as a dusting powder for erythema. 

* KAOLINUM — KAOLIN 

Synonyms. Fuller's Earth, Hydrated Aluminium Salicate 

Kaolin is the principal ingredient of the clay poultices. It occurs 
as a dirty gray powder or in hard lumps (white rock), is unctuous 
and slippery when moist, swells up on the addition of water and 
retains large amounts of water. It may be used in its dry con- 
dition as a protectant powder and when soaked up with water or 
glycerin as a poultice in inflammatory conditions and as a pack for 
horses' feet. 

LYCOPODIUM 

Lycopodium is the spores of Lycopodium claratum. It may be 
used as a protective in irritations of the skin and is used in pharmacy 
as a coating for pills so that they will not stick together. 

COLLODIUM — COLLODION 

Collodion is a solution of gun cotton in ether and alcohol. 
Preparations. 

Collodium Flexile. Flexible collodion. 
* Collodium Stypticum. Styptic collodion. 
Collodium Cantharidatum. Cantharidial collodion. 
Flexible collodion is a simple protectant, styptic collodion a styp- 
tic dressing and cantharidial collodion a mild stimulant. 

SOAPS 

Two soaps are official, Sapo and Sapo Mollis. 

SAPO — SOAP 

Soap is directed to be prepared from olive oil and sodium 
hydroxide. It is really sodium oleate. It corresponds to the " pure 
white Castile soap " of commerce. It is used as an excipient for 
making pills, as a detergent, in the preparation of liniments and in 
preparing enemata. A small piece of soap formed into suitable 
shape will make a fairly satisfactory suppository for small animals. 
* Unofficial. 



SAPO MOLLIS — SOFT SOAP 481 

SAPO MOLLIS — SOFT SOAP 

Synonyms. Green Soap, Potassium Oleate 

This is made by the action of potassium hydroxide upon cotton 
seed oil. It is more readily soluble in water than the preceding 
drug and is consequently often used in making enemata. Soft soap 
is also a parasiticide and antiseptic and is used in various mange 
remedies to aid the penetration of other drugs and for the action of 
the soap itself. Tincture of soap is an alcoholic solution of soft soap. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
DIAGNOSTIC AGENTS 

Two diagnostic agents in common use will be briefly discussed. 
They are: 

Tuberculin and Mallei n. 

TUBERCULIN 

Tuberculin is the concentrated liquid, usually glycerinated 
bouillon, on which tubercle bacteria have grown until the products 
resulting from their multiplication, including the disintegrated bodies 
of dead tubercle bacteria, have become imparted to the medium in 
sufficient quantity to inhibit their further development. (Moore.) 

Action. Tuberculin is harmless to healthy animals in the doses 
necessary for diagnostic purposes and produces no symptoms in 
these animals. In tuberculous animals it causes a rise of tempera- 
ture which follows a fairly definite course and usually terminates 
within 18 to 24 hours after its administration, but sometimes per- 
sists for a longer period of time. After subcutaneous doses of tuber- 
culin, the temperature of tuberculous animals usually begins to in- 
crease in from 6 to 8 hours, giving a steady gradual increase for 
from 2 to 4 hours, followed by a continuous high elevation for a 
few hours and then gradually returns to normal. In rare cases the 
elevation of temperature does not take place until 18 or more hours 
after the injection. Besides the elevation of temperature, animals 
sometimes show an " organic reaction " manifested by a nervous chill 
or muscular trembling. 

Doses. The dose of tuberculin varies with the concentration 
used. The average adult dose is 0.25 mil of the concentrated Koch 
tuberculin but this is made up in various dilutions by different 
manufacturers. The dose of that prepared at the New York State 
Veterinary College at Cornell University is 2 mils, and this should 
be varied according to the weight of the animal. 

Methods of Use. 

Subcutaneous 

Ophthalmic 

Intradermal. 

Subcutaneous. This consists of injecting tuberculin beneath the 
skin of the animals and noting the temperature before and after 

"482 



MALLEIN 483 

injection. Usually two preinjection temperatures are taken at 2 
and 4 hours previous to the injection, and in some places, a morning 
temperature is required. The temperatures are resumed in from 6 
to 10 hours after the injection and taken at regular intervals up to 
the 18th hour following the injection or until the temperature re- 
turns to normal. The reaction has been explained previously. 

Ophthalmic. This is carried out by applying some tuberculin 
to the conjunctival sac. The reaction consists of a conjunctivitis 
which begins in cattle in from 5 to 10 hours with watering of the 
eyes ; redness of the conjunctiva and edema followed by a purulent 
conjunctivitis. The reaction may persist for 1 or 2 days. 

Intradermal. In this method the tuberculin is injected into the 
deeper layers of the skin, usually in one of the folds of the skin on 
the under side of the base of the tail. The dose is 0.1 — 0.2 mil. 
The characteristic reaction is shown by a thickening of the fold of 
skin or the appearance of a sensitive swelling at the site of the injec- 
tion. The swelling can be recognized in from 6 to 12 hours and 
continues to increase for 2 to 3 days. Haring recommends that the 
observation be made at the 72nd hour if but one is made. 

MALLEIN 

Mallein is used in the diagnosis of glanders. It consists of the 
glycerinated bouillon on which glanders bacteria have grown and in 
which are the products resulting from their multiplication. (Moore. ) 
It is used in two ways : 

Subcutaneous 
Ophthalmic. 

Subcutaneous Method. The usual dose, 0.5 — 2 mils according 
to concentration, is injected under the skin on the side of the neck. 
The reaction consists of a hot painful swelling at the point of in- 
jection which shows in a few hours and may increase in size for 
24-36 hours. Simultaneously with the swelling, the patient becomes 
dull, listless, has no appetite and is subject to tremors. This is known 
as the " organic reaction." 

The temperature begins to rise in about 8 hours and gradually 
rises to 1.5° or more above the normal, usually reaching the maximum 
between the 10th and 12th hour, and does not return to normal from 
24—48 hours or even longer. 

Ophthalmic Method. Mallein is applied to one eye of the animal. 
The reaction begins in from 5 to 6 hours after the application and 
persists for 36—48 hours longer. It consists of a suppurative con- 
junctivitis. The results are interpreted as follows: Moore. 1. 
Reaction is positive if a suppurative secretion is observed in varying 
quantities. If the secretion is present in only small quantities it is 



484 DIAGNOSTIC AGENTS 

principally visible at the inner canthus of the eye. 2. The reaction 
is negative in the absence of any secretion. 3. The reaction is doubt- 
ful when there is present a slimy secretion or lachrymation after 24 
hours. 

For complete discussion of these products, see texts on pathology 
and medicine. 



CHAPTER XXX 

BACTERINS, SERUMS, VACCINES AND ANTITOXINS 
HISTORICAL 

The present trend of medicine is toward prophylaxis. It is 
tending toward the old Chinese custom which gave the physician a 
fee when the patient was well but as soon as he fell sick the pay- 
ments stopped. The doctor was paid for keeping his patients in 
good health. Biological products in the form of vaccines, serums and 
antitoxins have been and are widely used as prophylactic as well as 
therapeutic agents. The history of the application of these far 
antedates modern medicine. Hippocrates taught that that which 
could produce disease was also capable of curing it, a theory which 
underlies modern homeopathic medicine. Pliny, the Elder, recom- 
mended the livers of mad dogs as a cure for hydrophobia. In Asia 
and other Oriental countries the custom of exposing people to mild 
forms of smallpox in order to render them immune was practised 
for many centuries before the discovery of smallpox vaccination. _ 

It remained for Edward Jenner in 1793 to demonstrate m a 
scientific manner that cow pox, conveyed to man a definite immunity 
against small pox. This discovery was based on the observation 
that milk maids who had contracted cow pox in the natural pursuance 
of their occupation were thereafter immune to small pox. 

Very little progress along these lines was made for eighty years 
or until modern bacteriology began its development. The master 
scientific mind of Pasteur thought out and developed several of the 
most important discoveries in the field of vaccination that have ever 
been made. The first was in relation to fowl cholera. Many of 
the chickens around Paris were dying from a virulent infection and 
Pasteur isolated the causative organism, Bad. cholera gallmarum. 
It was found by accident that cultures of this organism could _ be 
attenuated by cultivation so that they were not capable of producing 
the disease. It was further noted that fowls that had been injected 
with this non-virulent culture did not succumb when later they were 
inoculated with a dose of a virulent strain of these bacteria, lnis 
furnished Pasteur with the key to the knowledge of active immuniza- 
tion and he had the genius to apply his discovery to the prevention o± 
disease. To this great man of science we owe our present system ot 
immunization against anthrax and rabies. The original methods 
Pasteur employed in the prevention of these two scourges ol man and 

485 



486 BACTERINS, SERUMS — VACCINES — ANTITOXINS 

beast, are used today, after an interval of nearly fifty years, with 
but very minor modifications. The next most important discoveries 
were those of diphtheria antitoxin in 1890 by von Behring and 
tetanus antitoxin in 1892 by von Behring and Kitasato. Wright and 
Douglass, in 1903, further advanced the methods of vaccination for 
therapeutic purposes by injecting dead bacteria into the bodies of 
patients suffering from infections due to these particular organisms. 
At first this method which is the basis of our modern " bacterin 
therapy " was used only in chronic infections but now its application 
has been extended to include the acute infections, notably typhoid in 
man and with more or less success in dog distemper, hemorrhagic 
septicemia and contagious abortion of cattle, etc. Serum of animals 
immunized to the cause of a disease has been used for some time both 
as therapeutic and prophylactic agents. The most notable examples 
of the use of these agents are in cerebrospinal meningitis of man and 
in hog cholera. The former was put on a firm basis by the experi- 
mental studies of Flexner in 1905-6. The latter was discovered 
and put into application by Dorset, jNTiles and McBride in 1908. 
The far reaching success of the use of these agents cannot be ex- 
pressed in exact figures. 

THEORIES OF IMMUNITY 

In order to understand the action of the products or agents to be 
later described, a brief description of the theories of immunity is 
necessary. For a full discussion of this subject the student or prac- 
titioner is referred to the reference books given at the end of this 
chapter. 

Immunity is the resistance to the invasion of a certain organism 
or cause of disease which is possessed by an individual or animal. In 
other words, it is the power an animal has to ward off or resist a 
disease. Immunity is either natural or acquired. 

Natural Immunity. Certain species of animals do not, under 
natural conditions, succumb to some diseases. For example, cattle 
are not affected with glanders, dogs with anthrax or horses with black 
leg. Natural immunity is the resistance certain species of animals 
have to certain diseases, this resistance being born with the indi- 
vidual. Many theories have been devised to explain this phenomenon 
but none of them are very satisfactory. 

Acquired Immunity is a resistance against disease brought 
about by a variety of means, (a) Recovery from a naturally con- 
tracted attack of the disease, (b) By injecting the individual with 
living but attenuated cultures or virus, (c) By injecting the indi- 
vidual with fully virulent cultures or virus in sublethal amounts, 
(d) By injecting dead bacteria and bacterial extracts, (e) By in- 
jecting bacterial products (toxins), (f) By injecting the blood 



THEORIES OF IMMUNITY 487 

serum of an animal which has recovered from the disease or which 
has been highly immunized to the virus or cause. 

Among the theories elaborated to explain acquired immunity the 
following should be mentioned : 

1. The Exhaustion Theory. This was Pasteur's own theory of 
the mechanism of acquired immunity. He believed that the living 
microorganism of a disease in an infected animal used up some sub- 
stance essential to its existence, so that for lack of proper nourish- 
ment, the organisms or bacteria were forced to retire, the soil being 
unfit for further development. 

2. The Retention Theory. Chauveau, on the other hand, con- 
sidered it more probable that the microorganism after haying lived in 
the body of an infected animal, produced substances which, accumu- 
lating in the blood, had an inhibitory action on the bacteria and 
caused them to die off. This was really just the opposite to the 

belief of Pasteur. 

3. The Phagocytosis Theory. This was the product of the 
genius of Metchnikoff. He showed that certain cells of the body, par- 
ticularly the polynuclear leucocytes, were very active in the defense 
of the body against invasion by microorganisms. According to this 
theory, these cells ingested or devoured invading bacteria in a manner 
similar to that of an ameba ingesting a food particle. After being 
ingested, the cells disposed of the bacteria by intracellular digestion 
through the agency of ferments known as " cytases." To cells which 
possess such protective properties the term " phagocyte " is applied 
and to the process of actual ingestion of the organisms, the term 
" phagocytosis." This theory was still further elaborated by Wright 
and Douglas, who showed that certain of the body fluids, notably the 
blood serum, possessed the property of lowering the resistance of 
bacteria, rendering them more susceptible to phagocytosis. To that 
substance which rendered bacteria more " palatable " to the phagocyte 
Wright gave the name " opsonin." 

4. The Humeral Theory. This theory is based on the observa- 
tions oi Buchner and others that blood serum has the power of de- 
stroying a certain number of bacteria when introduced into it. 

5. Ehrlich's Side-chain Theory. This is really one explana- 
tion of the Humeral Theory of immunity but was advanced in 1885 
to explain the process of nutrition. Ehrlich believed that cells have 
two important functions: (a) a special physiologic function, as that 
of a gland cell to secrete; (b) a function of nutrition and presiding 
over the process of waste and repair. The second function or that 
concerned with nutrition is of more importance in relation to im- 
munity. According to his belief the cells have a number of chemical 
groups or side chains. Immunity depends upon the presence or ab- 
sence of certain substances which he calls receptors or lateral chains. 

Kinds of Immunity. Toxic Immunity is where the disease is. 



488 BACTERINS, SERUMS — VACCINES — ANTITOXINS 

caused by an extracellular toxin, such as is produced by Bact. diph- 
therias and B. tetani and in which the animal or individual is immun- 
ized either by the production of an antitoxin within the body due to 
an attack of the disease or where the antitoxin is injected into the 
body. 

Bacterial immunity is where amboceptors or immune bodies are 
present having been produced in the body by the influence of the 
infecting organisms or introduced from without. 

An active and passive immunity are also generally recognized. 
An active immunity is produced when the specific antitoxin or im- 
mune bodies are produced within the body itself. As for example, a 
dog that recovers from distemper is not susceptible to that disease 
because the tissues of its body have elaborated and thrown off specific 
immune bodies toward this infection. Passive immunity is where 
the individual received from without a sufficient quantity of anti- 
toxin or amboceptors with which to neutralize the toxin or destroy the 
invading bacteria. As for example, the horse which receives sub- 
cutaneously an injection of tetanus antitoxin is rendered passively 
immune to tetanus. As a rule active immunity is of much longer 
duration than passive. 

Terms Defined. A somewhat vague and not altogether uniform 
terminology is used in the description of the various biological 
products employed in the prevention and cure of disease. For this 
reason it is thought best to include a list of these terms in common 
usage with their meaning as used in this chapter. 

Vaccines. This term comes from the Latin word " vacca," re- 
lating to the cow, and in its original application was used by Jenner 
to designate the prophylactic agent to immunize against smallpox, i.e., 
the virus of cow pox or " vaccinia." This was a living, attenuated 
virus. Following the discoveries of Pasteur, Wright and many 
others, a large number of agents came into usage for immunilogical 
or therapeutic purposes. These too were termed vaccines. In order 
to avoid confusion it seems logical to limit the term vaccine to apply 
only to those viruses which are in the living, attenuated form used to 
produce an active immunity. 

Bacterin. This term sprang up in connection with products 
used for the treatment of disease following the discoveries of Wright, 
Douglas, Leishman and their colleagues. They are really bacterial 
vaccines and are called such by many authorities. They consist of 
dead bacteria and the products of their growth, suspended in sterile 
physiological saline solution to which is usually added a little disin- 
fectant, as carbolic acid or tricresol 0.1 — 0.5 per cent. The objection 
to this term (bacterin) is that it implies an extract of bacteria, as does 
tuberculin. This objection does not, however, seem to be well 
founded. 

Antitoxin. This is the blood serum of an animal which has 



VACCINES — ANTHRAX VACCINE 489 

been immunized to the specific toxin, as for example, tetanus anti- 
toxin is the blood serum of an animal which has been immunized 
with gradually increasing doses of tetanus toxin or which has recov- 
ered from tetanus. Most of the antitoxin on the market is in a con- 
centrated form. It is prepared by precipitating the globulin frac- 
tion of the raw serum with ammonium sulphate and redissolving it 
in a minimal quantity of salt solution. The globulins carry with 
them most of the active principle of the antitoxin and in this manner 
a serum may be concentrated so that a large number of units may be 
contained in a small bulk of fluid. 

Serums. The serums are the blood serums of animals which have 
been immunized to the viruses or causes of the diseases for which 
they are used. It is in this respect, i.e., the animal immunized to 
the virus instead of the toxin, that they differ from antitoxins noted 
above. In certain diseases, notably hog cholera, the specific cause is 
not known, but the virus occurs in the blood of the animals sick with 
the disease. (Further, it is not known whether there is specific toxin 
produced by the cause. ) Therefore, the animal is immunized to the 
cause itself as contained in the blood from the infected animal. This 
product (anti-hog-cholera serum) as now usually manufactured con- 
tains the leucocytes and red blood corpuscles as well as the serum. 

In case of other serums, such as those for white scours and strep- 
tococcic infections, they consist of the serum only of the animals which 
have been immunized to the bacteria found in cases of white scours 
and pure cultures of streptococci. 

Serobacterins. These are sensitized dead bacteria. Bacteria are 
immersed in the blood serum of an animal which has been immunized 
to that specific germ. After sensitization they are washed free of the 
serum and are suspended in saline solution. 

VACCINES 

The more important vaccines are used in immunizing against 
anthrax, rabies and black leg. More recently, Hardenburg has used 
a vaccine in Hemorrhagic Septicemia of cattle and Bland has also 
employed one in the control of contagious abortion. 

Anthrax Vaccine. (Pasteur.) The usual method of immun- 
ization against anthrax consists in the subcutaneous injection of atten- 
uated cultures of Bad. anthracis. Two injections of varying degrees 
of strength are made at intervals of 12 to 14 days. The first injec- 
tion consists of 1 mil of a bouillon culture of Bad. anthracis which 
has been attenuated by incubation at 42° — 13° C. (Optimum incu- 
bation temperature 37.5° C.) for a sufficient time to decrease 
its virulence to a point where it will kill white mice but will 
not kill guinea pigs. This period of incubation usually takes about 
24 days. A culture so attenuated can be used for the preparation of 



490 BACTERINS, SERUMS — VACCINES — ANTITOXINS 

anthrax vaccine for long periods of time, as it does not seem to regain 
its virulence. The second injection consists of a culture similarly 
made and likewise incubated at the high temperature of 42° — 43° C. 
for a period of 12 to 18 days or until its virulence has been reduced 
to a point where it will kill guinea pigs but not rabbits. When such 
attenuated cultures are injected into animals, a very mild and usually 
clinically unnoticeable attack of anthrax is produced which confers 
an active immunity. 

Recently Eichhorn, working in the Bureau of Animal Industry, 
has developed what is termed a " spore vaccine." It is prepared by 
first attenuating cultures by growing them at 42.5° C. for varying 
periods. The cultures which had been grown at the high temperature 
for 20 days proved satisfactory. The test inoculation showed that 
their virulence was such that they would kill mice and guinea pigs but 
not rabbits. 

These cultures should be inoculated onto a peptone-free agar 
medium and grown at a temperature of 37.5° C. for 4 to 7 days, by 
which time an abundance of spores will have formed. The growth is 
then washed from the slants and collected in a sterile flask and 
heated at a temperature of 60° C. for one-half hour, to destroy the 
vegetative forms of the organism. A measured quantity of this sus- 
pension can then be plated out in the usual manner and the spore 
content of 1 mil of the suspension established. A dilution can then 
be made to the desired amount for inoculation purposes. Thus, if 
it is desired to use for vaccination 1,000,000 spores, it is best to dilute 
the vaccine to a quantity of which 1 mil would contain this number. 
Of such vaccine 1 mil would constitute the dose for cattle and horses, 
with correspondingly smaller doses for calves and sheep. 

In all forms of vaccination against anthrax in sheep the greatest 
care must be exercised, since these animals are very susceptible to the 
disease, and at times vaccines which have no ill effects on cattle will 
prove fatal to sheep ; therefore the dose of the spore vaccine for sheep 
should not be more than one-fourth the amount given cattle. 

In the preparation of spore vaccines it is essential to submit every 
lot to a test for pathogenicity by inoculating approximately 250,000 
spores — that is, 0.25 mil of the standard suspension — into guinea 
pigs and rabbits before employing the same for vaccination purposes. 
The guinea pigs should die in from 2 to 5 days, whereas the rabbits 
should remain alive. 

In consideration of the keeping qualities of the spore vaccine, 
large lots can be prepared without fear of deterioration. In the bot- 
tling and storing of the same, however, proper care should be taken to 
prevent contamination. 

This spore vaccine is often used in connection with an anthrax 
serum. That is, the so-called simultaneous treatment is employed. 
This consists in injecting an animal with a dose of the spore vaccine 



RABIES VACCINE 



491 



and at the same time with blood serum taken from a horse which has 
been highly immunized to the anthrax organism. This simultaneous 
method seems to give very good results. 

Rabies Vaccine. Pasteur observed that the virulence of the 
virus of this disease was less in animals that had been dead for some 
time than in those just killed, and by experiment he found that when 
the nervous system of an infected rabbit was dried in a sterile atmos- 
phere, its virulence attenuated in proportion to the length of time it 
was dried. A method of attenuating the virulence was suggested to 
Pasteur and the idea of using it as a protective vaccination soon fol- 
lowed. 

It is necessary to have for the purpose of vaccination a virus of 
known or standard virulence. This is prepared from the so-called 
" street virus," which is usually taken from the brain of a rabid dog. 
An emulsion is prepared from this material and injected into a rab- 
bit. As soon as this animal dies, its spinal cord is removed, a similar 
emulsion made from a small piece of it, and a second rabbit inocu- 
lated and so on through a series of from 21 — 30 rabbits or until a 
standard virulence is attained and the virus is said to be "fixed." 
This " fixed virus " has a much higher degree of virulence than the 
" street virus " taken from a rabid dog and its virulence does not vary, 
always killing rabbits on the sixth or seventh day. 







TABLE I 








SCHEME 


FOE MILD TREATMENT 








Amount 


injected 




Day 


Cord 


Adult 


Five to 
ten years 


One to 
five years 




Injections 


mils 


mils 


mils 


1 


8-7-6 = 3 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2 


5-4 = 2 


2.5 


2.5 


1.5 


3 


4-3 = 2 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


4 


5 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


5 


4 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


6 


3 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


7 


3 = 1 


2.5 


1.5 


2.0 


8 


2 = 1 


2.5 


2.0 


1.0 


9 


2 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


1.5 


10 


5 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


11 


5 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


12 


4 = 1 


2.5 . 


2.5 


2.5 


13 


4 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


14 


3 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


15 


3 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


16 


2 = 1 


2.5 


2.0 


1.5 


17 


2 = 1 


2.5 


2.0 


1.5 


18 


4 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


19 


3 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


20 


2 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


21 


2 = 1 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 



492 BACTERINS, SERUMS — VACCINES — ANTITOXINS 



Day 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 



Cord 

Injections 

8-7-6 = 3 

4-3 = 2 

5-4 = 2 

3 = 1 

3 = 1 
2 = 1 

2 = 1 

1 = 1 
5 = 1 

4 = 1 
4 = 1 

3 = 1 

3 = 1 

2 = 1 

2 = 1 

4 = 1 

3 = 1 

2 = 1 

3 = 1 
2 = 1 
1 = 1 



TABLE II 






i INTENSIVE 


TREATMENT 




Amount injected 




Adult 


Five to 


One to 




ten years 


five years 


mils 


mils 


mils 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.0 


1.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


1.5 


1.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.5 


2.0 



A series of spinal cords taken from rabbits dead of " fixed virus " 
are cut into segments and suspended in sterile glass jars containing 
caustic potash. These jars are kept at approximately 22° C. The 
cord, when taken out at the end of the first 24 hours, is found to be 
almost as active as the fresh untreated cord ; the cord removed at 48 
hours, is slightly less active than that removed 24 hours before ; and 
the diminution in virulence, though gradual, progresses regularly and 
surely until at the end of the eighth day the virus is inactive. 

The system of treatment given at the different laboratories varies. 
Some allow the cord to desiccate for 14 days. The system given here 
is the one used in the Hygienic Laboratory of the Public Health and 
Marine Hospital Service, Washington, L). C. It also corresponds 
closely with that used in Berlin. 

Black Leg Vaccine. To Arloing, Cornivin and Thomas belongs 
the honor of first discovering that animals may be protected against 
black leg by inoculation with more or less virulent material obtained 
from animals which have died from black leg. They found that 
hypodermic injection of minimal doses of fluid from a black leg 
tumor did not necessarily result in death, but frequently produced a 
mild attack of the disease, unaccompanied by any swelling, and that 
animals thus treated were afterwards possessed of a very high degree 
of resistance to the disease. The method of preparing black leg vac- 



BACTERINS 493 

cine as used by the Bureau of Animal Industry is as follows : Pro- 
longed exposure to a high temperature serves to attenuate the viru- 
lence of either fresh or dried virus. The material used for the vac- 
cine is obtained from fresh black leg tissue (which contains B. chau- 
veaui, the cause of the disease) by pounding the muscle tissue in a 
mortar with the addition of a little water and squeezing the pulp 
through a piece of linen cloth. The juice is spread in layers on plates 
and is dried quickly at a temperature of about 35° C. This tem- 
perature does not in the least affect the germs and the dried virus 
obtained in this way retains a high degree of virulence for two years 
or more. 

When vaccine is to be prepared, the dry material is pulverized 
and mixed in a mortar with two parts of water, until it forms a semi- 
fluid homogeneous mass. This is spread in a thin layer on a saucer 
or glass dish and placed in an oven, the temperature of which can be 
regulated and kept from 90° to 94° C. It should remain at this 
temperature seven hours. When removed, it appears as a brownish 
scale, which is easily detached from the dish. The scale is pulverised 
and put up into packages of 10 doses each. Before it is used, it is 
mixed with 10 mils water, filtered and the filtrate injected in doses 
of 1 mil. 

An agent which is termed Black Leg Aggressin is also used for 
immunization against this disease. It is prepared by first chopping 
up fine black leg muscle. This is then frozen solid for several weeks, 
then thawed out and the juice pressed out. This liquid is then passed 
through a Berkfeld filter. It is administered subcutaneously. 

BACTERINS 

Among the first to employ " heat sterilized " virus for the pro- 
duction of immunity in animals, was the " Father of veterinary medi- 
cine in America," Dr. James Law, who in 1880 reported to the U. S. 
Commissioner of Agriculture that he had been able to immunize pigs 
to " swine fever " by this agent. He, in time, was followed by 
Salmon, who immunized pigeons against B. suipestifer. Later 
Moore obtained similar results in guinea pigs with dead bacteria, and 
these were reported to the Washington Biological Society in 1893. 
In 1894 Smith and Moore published the results of several series of 
inoculations with heated cultures of hog cholera and swine plague bac- 
teria. It was not, however, until 1903, due to the work of Wright 
and Douglass, that this phase of Bacteriology received the impetus 
which today places it in first rank in therapeutic and prophylactic 
medicine. According to the work of these men, immunity is pro- 
duced through the agency of opsonins, which increase the phagocy- 
tosis. They also devised a method for estimating the power of the 
blood serum to prepare bacteria for ingestion by the phagocytes and 



494 BACTERINS, SERUMS — VACCINES — ANTITOXINS 

called this the " opsonic index." This is not used as much as for- 
merly because its accuracy is not as great as believed by its dis- 
coverers. 

The method of preparation of bacterins is simple. They are 
usually made by growing the bacteria on slant agar for a suitable 
period of time (24 — 72 hrs.) and washing off the growth with phys- 
iological salt solution. This suspension is then sterilized by heating 
at 55° — 60° C. for an hour, diluted so as to contain the proper num- 
ber of bacteria per mil and a disinfectant added, usually 0.5 per cent, 
carbolic acid or 0.2 per cent, trikresol. 

The method usually employed for counting the bacteria is one de- 
vised by Wright. This consists of a comparison of the number of 
bacteria in a certain quantity of blood. Another method is by the 
use of the hemacytometer. 

There seems to be no fixed rule or method by which the exact dose 
can be determined. The response to the initial dose cannot be known 
in advance of the injection. After the first injection is made and the 
effect noted, the dose may have to be increased or decreased accord- 
ingly. The number of bacteria injected at one time varies from 10 
million to 200 billion, the average being 500 million to 1 billion. 

In connection with bacterin therapy, several terms are used, the 
exact meaning of which should be thoroughly understood. 

Autogenous bacterins (vaccines) are those made from the same 
strain of the germ as that causing the disease. Cultures are made 
from the sick animal and are incubated and bacterins made from 
these. 

Stock bacterins (vaccines) are made from cultures kept in the 
laboratory. 

Polyvalent bacterins (vaccines) are those prepared from more 
than one strain of some species of bacteria. 

Mixed bacterins (vaccines) contain more than one species of bac- 
teria as B. coli, Ps. pyocyaneus, Mic. aureus, etc. It has sometimes 
been compared to the " shot gun " prescription. 

The number of bacterins used in the treatment of disease is very 
large. The most common are strepto- and staphylo-bacterin ; B. coli, 
pneumonia or influenza bacterin and mixed bacterin. Also a bacterin 
for contagious abortion and dog distemper is on the market. 

The administration of bacterins for prophylaxis is in many cases 
attended with good results. This is especially true in the most excel- 
lent results secured in typhoid immunization in man. The thera- 
peutic action of these agents in certain cases of chronic suppuration is 
undoubted. However, we agree with Eichhorn, who states as fol- 
lows: 

" There is a tendency at the present time to employ bacterins for 
almost every infection. They are being prepared against most of the 
pathogenic organisms producing disease, irrespective of whether they 



TETANUS ANTITOXIN 495 

are beneficial or not. At times exaggerated claims are made for such 
products, and the veterinarians are very apt to make use of them, 
regardless of whether the cases are adapted to that form of treat- 
ment. 

" This applies especially to the bacterial vaccines, which, at the 
present time, have gained such great popularity with the veterinary 
profession. Polyvalent, mixed, strepto, staphylo, colon, etc., bac- 
terins, are injected into animals at times without any basis for such 
treatment. I do not intend to condemn any of these preparations, but 
I desire to strongly advise veterinarians to use good judgment in the 
selection of such preparations, since in using biological products there 
is more or less an inclination to disregard or neglect other means of 
treatment, which would probably benefit the animals far more than a 
useless injection of an inert product for the particular case." 

ANTITOXINS 

The two antitoxins in general use are Tetanus and Diphtheria, the 
former only being used in veterinary practice. 

Tetanus Antitoxin. Several methods are used to produce anti- 
toxin, the details of which vary but slightly. The first thing neces- 
sary is an active toxin. This is produced by growing Bacillus tetanus 
(in the preparation of tetanus antitoxin) in bouillon cultures anaero- 
bically for from six to ten days. The culture fluid is then filtered 
through porcelain and the germ-free filtrate is used for the inocula- 
tion. The horse receives 5 mils as the initial dose of a toxin of 
which 1 mil would kill 100 guinea pigs each of 350 grams weight. 
This amount of toxin is injected along with twice the amount of 
antitoxin required to neutralize it. In five days this dose is doubled 
and then every five to seven days larger amounts are given. After 
the third injection, the antitoxin is omitted. The dose is increased 
at first slowly until appreciable amounts of antitoxin are found to be 
present and then as rapidly as the horse can stand it, until 700 — 800 
mils of the toxin can be injected at one time. This amount should 
not be injected in a single place or severe local and perhaps fatal 
tetanus may develop. This treatment should continue over several 
months until the blood of the animal contains sufficient antitoxin. 

Antitoxin unit. The method of standardizing the antitoxin is to 
determine its protective action on guinea pigs of standard weight (350 
grams) when injected with a toxin of a known strength. A tetanus 
antitoxin unit is ten times the least amount of serum (from the 
immunized horse) necessary to save the life of a 350 gram guinea 
pig for ninety-six hours against 100 minimal lethal doses of a precipi- 
tated toxin prepared most carefully and under standard conditions, 
by the Hygienic Laboratory of the Public Health and Marine-Hospi- 
tal Service. 



496 BACTERINS, SERUMS — VACCINES — ANTITOXINS 

Dose. The dosage of tetanus antitoxin varies. An immunizing 
dose for a horse is usually from 500 — 1500 units. The therapeutic 
dose ranges from 5000 — 20,000 units. 

The injection of an antitoxin into an animal establishes a passive 
immunity differing from that produced by the use of vaccines or bac- 
terins. It is an efficient prophylactic agent, but its therapeutic value 
is somewhat doubtful. 



SERUMS 

Anti-Hog-Cholera Serum. The method of preparing this 
product as given by Birch is as follows : 

Process of serum preparation. Immunize a large hog by giving it 
2 mils of virus and sufficient serum to protect. After it has recov- 
ered from the slight resulting reaction (in ten days or more) it is 
ready to hyperimmunize at any subsequent time. 

Hyperimmunization. Inject the immune hog intravenously with 
5 mils of the virus for each pound of body weight. This completes 
hyperimmunization and the animal is ready to bleed for serum in 
about ten days. 

Bleeding for serum. This is done under antiseptic conditions 
from the tail, by cutting off the end. Five mils for each pound of 
body weight is the usual amount drawn. When the bleeding is fin- 
ished ligate the tail securely. 

Handling the blood. Immediately after blood is drawn it is de- 
fibrinated, and strained through sterile gauze. For each 90 mils of 
blood there is added, as a preservative, 10 mils of a 5 per cent, solu- 
tion of phenol. This completes the process of preparation, and the 
blood, or serum as it is called, is stored in a refrigerator until a test 
is to be made. Then the combined bleedings from several hogs are 
mixed in a large container and a sample is drawn for testing. 

Testing the Serum. Eight young susceptible pigs, weighing from 
30 to 60 pounds each, and preferably from the same litter, are chosen 
for the test. All are exposed to hog cholera by giving them 2 mils 
each of virus. Two of the pigs receive 10 mils each of the serum 
sample to be tested, two receive 15 mils each, and two receive 20 
mils each of the same sample. Two are given no serum and serve as 
checks. The pigs are marked for identification, placed together and 
given like care. The requirements of a satisfactory test are that the 
pigs receiving virus and no serum shall sicken inside of seven days 
and reach a dying condition inside of fourteen days ; and that they 
shall, on post-mortem, show marked cholera lesions ; that the pigs 
receiving virus and 10 mils of serum shall remain well or sicken and 
recover; that the pigs receiving virus and the larger doses of serum 
(15 and 20 mils each) shall not show any clinical symptoms of hog 
cholera except a moderate and transient rise in temperature. 



WHITE SCOURS SERUM 497 

Use. Anti-Hog-Cholera Serum is primarily a prophylactic agent. 
However, it has been used in the early stages of the disease as a 
therapeutic agent with good results. There are two ways in which 
it may be used. 

(a) Serum alone method. This consists in administering intra- 
muscularly the necessary dose of serum. The immunity produced 
thereby lasts a month to six weeks. It is a passive immunity. 

(b) Simultaneous method. This includes giving a small dose of 
the virulent hog cholera blood along with the necessary dose of the 
serum. These two agents are to be injected separately and into dif- 
ferent parts of the body. This method produces a permanent im- 
munity in all swine except sucklings. 

White Scours Serum. The specific cause of this infection still 
seems to be in doubt. According, however, to the uniform results of 
bacteriological studies, the disease in most cases seems to be due to B. 
coli or one of its virulent varieties. It was with this fact in mind 
that Jensen treated a horse with dead and living cultures of the colon 
bacillus and prepared a serum which had a decided bactericidal 
action. This, however, was prepared from a single strain of the 
colon organism and consequently the monovalent serum was effective 
only against this particular strain of B. coli. Consequently a poly- 
valent serum was prepared, which proved much more satisfactory. 

In the preparation of polyvalent colon serum, carefully selected 
strains of the colon bacillus are separately cultivated in bouillon at 
37° C. Then the cultures are mixed in measured quantities and the 
mixture is injected intravenously in horses in quantities of 0.25 to 
0.50 mils and after each 12 — 14 days, increasing doses up to 10 — 20 
mils.' If after a certain time, the serum of the horse produces pre- 
cipitation in a bouillon culture of a certain colon strain in the dilution 
of 1 — 500 or 1 — 2000, it is probable that the protective serum may be 
utilized with satisfactory results against infections with that par- 
ticular strain. The dose of serum prepared in this manner is from 
5—20 mils. 

Another white scours serum is being prepared in this country in 
which different strains of B. abortus (Bang) is used in connection 
with the different strains of B. coli for immunizing the horse from 
which the serum is to be obtained. 

Anti-Streptococcus Serum. This is prepared by injecting a 
horse with gradually increasing amounts of killed cultures of Strep, 
pyogenes obtained from several different sources. Several months 
elapse before the animal is ready for bleeding. The blood serum is 
usually preserved by the addition of a small quantity of some disinfec- 
tant. This serum may be used in cases of pyemia, septicemia and 
suppuration due to streptococci. The dose varies between wide limits 
of from 10 — 100 mils, depending entirely upon conditions. A poly- 
valent streptococcus serum has been used with good results in the 



498 BACTERINS, SERUMS — VACCINES — ANTITOXINS 

treatment of purpura hemorrhagica. This serum originated with 
Jensen at Copenhagen. 

Black Leg Serum. A serum for Black Leg or Symptomatic 
Anthrax is used in certain parts of the country. It is made by im- 
munizing a horse to gradually increasing doses of B. chauveui. This 
serum is sometimes used in connection with the vaccine in a manner 
similar to that described under anthrax. It really constitutes a 
simultaneous treatment. It is also used alone for therapeutic pur- 
poses. 

SERO BACTERINS 

These products originated with Besredka, who in 1902, working 
at the Pasteur Institute, Paris, brought forward what he termed 
" Virus-vaccine sensibilis." This was prepared by mixing immune 
serum and bacteria, permitting the mixture to stand for a while and 
then centrifuging the bacteria out of the serum and washing them 
entirely free by repeated centrifugalization with saline solution. 
The bacteria attract to themselves the specific antibodies which the 
immune serum contains, and are thus " prepared for digestion by the 
complement as well as for immediate phagocytosis." 

In preparing these agents, the growth from an agar culture of the 
organism is washed off with saline solutions and the suspension kept 
at 60 ° C. for one hour, in order to kill the organisms. This is filtered 
through fine silk into sterile centrifuge tubes and the corresponding 
immune goat serum is added. The mixture is left at laboratory tem- 
perature for 24 hours. More saline is now added and the mixture 
centrifuged. The supernatant fluid is poured off and the process re- 
peated until the bacteria are washed free of serum. They are then 
counted by Wright's method and standard suspensions made up. It 
is claimed that these agents have a very rapid action, producing a 
high grade of active immunity within 24 hours after the first injec- 
tion, with simultaneous marked improvement in the condition of the 
patient. 

Use. As yet they are not very widely used in veterinary prac- 
tice, but the strepto- and staphylo-sero-bacterins are occasionally em- 
ployed, also a sero-bacterin for dog distemper. 

PHYLACOGENS 

These agents are comparatively new and are based on the work 
and experience of Dr. A. F. Schaf er of California. It is his belief : 
"That all infections are mixed infections," that except in rare in- 
stances, there is no such thing as an infection by a single species of 
microorganism, that while one species may predominate the patho- 
logic process engendered by it is accelerated and intensified by the 
presence of organisms of other species; in other words, that in the 
course of an infectious disease, the symptoms are due not only to the 



PHYLACOGENS 499 

effects of a single species of organism (the specific infection) but to 
the influence of other organisms whose pathogenic role is not insignifi- 
cant, but which must be reckoned with, in any successful scheme of 
therapeutics. The preparation of phylacogens is as follows : 

" They are sterile, aqueous solutions of metabolic substances or 
derivatives generated by bacteria grown in artificial media. The bac- 
teria first killed, are removed by filtration through porcelain. To 
determine sterility, the phylacogens are subjected to careful cultural 
tests. 

" The phylacogens are made from a large variety of pathogenic 
bacteria, such as the several staphylococci, Streptococcus pyogenes, 
Bacillus pyocyaneous, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Bacillus typhosus, 
Bacillus coli communis, Streptococcus rheumaticus, Streptococcus 
erysipelatis, etc. This basic Phylacogen is a ' polyvalent ' prepa- 
ration or Polyphylacogen, since the organisms are not from one strain 
only of a given species, but from cultures made at frequent intervals 
and from a variety of sources. The various organisms are present in 
the material before filtration and dilution in approximately equal pro- 
portions. The cultures are incubated at 37° C. for 72 hours or 
longer, after which a preservative consisting of 0.5 per cent, of phenol 
is added to the fluid, which is then filtered through porcelain. The 
basic phylacogen, made in this manner, is used in the preparation of 
the several specific phylacogens. It has been named Mixed Infection 
Phylacogen. 

" Each specific phylacogen is prepared as follows : The basic 
material (Mixed Infection Phylacogen) is modified by the addition 
of an equal amount of the filtrate obtained by growing and treating 
the organism considered to be predominant in the pathological condi- 
tion to be treated; for instance, in the preparation of typhoid phy- 
lacogen, the Bacillus typhosus is grown and treated like the several 
organisms entering into the preparation of the basic Mixed Infection 
Phylacogen. The filtrate obtained from the preparation of the 
typhoid organism alone is added in equal amount to the Mixed Infec- 
tion Phylacogen, and the resulting product given the specific name 
" Typhoid Phylacogen." A similar method is employed in the manu- 
facture of the other specific phylacogens, such as pneumonia, gonor- 
rhea, tuberculosis, erysipelas, etc, etc." 

In veterinary medicine, two phylacogens are now used. They are 
mixed infection phylacogen and pneumonia phylacogen prepared 
from Diplococcus pneumonia. 

Use. These agents on account of their " polyvalent " character 
should be used with great caution by the veterinarian. As was 
pointed out in the use of Bacterins, there is a tendency to use a bio- 
logical agent whether it has any definite relation to the disease or not. 
" Shot-gun prescription " biologies are not to be recommended any 
more than " shot-gun prescriptions " using drugs. 



REFERENCES 

Allen. Vaccine Therapy and Opsonic Treatment. 

Birch, R. R. Hog Cholera and Its Prevention. Cornell Veterinarian. 

Vol. VI (1916), p. 90. 
Citron, J. Immunity. 2nd Ed. 1914. 

Committee from Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the Amer- 
ican Medical Association. Bacterial Vaccine Therapy. Jour. Am. 

Med. Ass., Vol. LX (1913), p. 1298. 
Eichhorn, A. Biological Therapeutics. Cornell Veterinarian, Vol. VI 

(1916), No. 1 p., 5. 
Pitch, C. P. A Review of the Principal Methods Used to Standardize 

Bacterins (Bacterial Vaccines) with Special Reference to the Use of 

the Hemocytometer. Jour. Am. Med. Ass., Vol. LXIV (1915), p. 893. 
Hiss, P. H, and Zinsser, H. A Text Book of Bacteriology. . 2nd Ed. 1914. 
Kolmer, J. A. Infection, Immunity and Specific Therapy. 1st Ed. 1915. 
Law, J. Swine Pever. Department of Agriculture Report. 1880, p. 515. 
Norgaard, V. A., rev. by Mohler, J. R. Blackleg: Its Nature, Cause and 

Prevention. Cir. No. 31, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, 

B.C. 
Rosenau, M. J., and Anderson, J. F. The Standardization of Tetanus 

Antitoxin. Bull. No. 1$. Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, 

Washington, D. C. 
Stimson, A. M. Pacts and Problems of Rabies. Bull. No. 65. Public 

Health and Marine Hospital Service. Washington, D, C. 
Zinsser, H. Infection and Resistance. 1st Ed. 1914. 



INDEX 



Abortifacients, 310 
Absolute alcohol, 170 
Absorbent, iodme as, 375-381 
Acacia, 478 

Accidents during anesthesia, to prevent, 
Aceta, definition, 34 
A. C. E. mixture, 166 
Acetanilid, 368 
Acetanilidum, 368 
Acetate of potassium, 296 
Acetic acid, 368 
diluted, 368 
glacial, 368 
Acetphenetidin, 118 
Acetphenetidinum, 118 
Acetum, 368 
Acetyl-salicylic acid, 123 
Acetyl-benzoyl-peroxide, 464 
Acid, acetic, 368 
diluted, 368 
glacial, 368 
acetyl salicylic, 123 
arsenic, 385 
arsenous, 385 

solution of, 385 
benzoic, 471 
boracic, 470 
boric, 470 
carbolic, 477 
citric, 368 
filicic, 272 
gymnemic, 196 
hydrobromic, 155 
hydrochloric, 366 

diluted, 366 
hydrocyanic, 166 

diluted, 166 
hydriodic, 382 
diluted, 382 
lactic, 369 
muriatic, 366 
diluted, 366 
nitric, 366 

diluted, 366 
nitrohvdrochloric, 366 

diluted, 366 
nitromuriatic, 366 

diluted, 366 
oleic, 370 
oxalic, 370 
phosphoric, 367 
pyroligneous, 368 
picric, 459 
salicylic, 119 
spacelinic, 312 
stearic, 370 
sulphuric, 367 
aromatic, 367 
diluted, 367 
sulphurous, 368 
tannic, 261 
tartaric, 369 
thymic, 458 
trichloracetic, 309 
Acidosis in anesthesia, 352 

sodium bicarbonate in, 352 
Acids, intoxication, 365 
Acidum aceticum, 368 
dilutum, 368 
glaciale. 368 



Acidum, continued 
benzoicum, 471 
boncum, 470 
citricum, 368 
gallicum, 265 
hydrobromicum, 155 
169 bydrochloricum, 366 

diluted, 366 
hydriodicum dilutum, 382 
hydrocyanicum, 166 
lacticum, 369 
nitricum, 366 

dilutum, 366 
nitrohydrochloricum, 366 

dilutum, 366 
phosphoricum, 369—399 
pyrolignosum, 368 
salicylicum, 119 
stearicum, 367 
sulphuricum, 367 
aromaticum, 367 
dilutum, 367 
sulphurousum, 368 
tannicum, 261 
tartaricum, 369 
trichloraceticum, 369 
Aconine, 91 
Aconite, 91 

as local anesthetic, 194 
Aconitine, 91 
Aconitum, 91 

napellus, 91 
Acrinylisocyanate, 338 
Acrinyl sulphocyanide, 228 
Acquired immunity, 486 
Actinomycosis, iodine and iodides in, 380 
Action of drugs, 62 
Active constituents of drugs, 2 
immunity, 488 
principles of drugs, 2 
Actol, 418 
Acupuncture, 333 
Adeps, 475 

benzoinatus, 475 
lanae, 475 

hydrosus, 475 
Administration of medicines, methods of, 64 

frequency of doses, 64 
Adonidin, 83 
Adonis vernalis, 72—83 
Adrenaline, 72-98 

as circ. stimulant, 89 
in shock, 98 
^Ether. 164 
^Ethyis bromide, 168 
carbamas, 162 
chloridum, 167 
JEthylmorphine, 145 
African cannabis, 153 
Albolene, liquid, 477 
Agents acting upon the rectum, 257 
Alactics, 320 
Albaspidin. 272 
Alcohol. 72-170 
absolutum, 170 
as circ. stimulant, 90 
as preventive of phenol burns, 449 
dehydrated, 170 
deodorized, 170 
diluted, 170 
ethyl, 170 
grain, 170 
501 



502 



INDEX 



Alcohol, continued 

methyl, 173 

wood, 173 
Alkalies and alkaline earths, 327 
Alkalies and alkaloid in compatibles, 3 
Alkalies as emetics, 226 

caustics, 244 
Alkaloids, definition, 2 

characteristics, 3 

incompatibles, 3 

nomenclature, 3 

solubility, 3 
Allylisothiocyanate, 338 

sulphocarbamide, 339 
Aloe, 241 

ferrox, 241 

perry i, 241 

vera, 241 
Aloes, 241 

curacao, 241 

barbadoes, 241 
Aloin, 242 
Aloinum, 242 
Alpha eucaine, 191 
AlthEea, 479 
Alum, 436 

as emetic, 227 

ammonium, 436 

burnt, 437 

dried, 437 

in laminitis, 437 

potassium, 436 
Alumen, 436 

exsiccatus, 437 
Aluminum, 436 
Alypine, 191 

nitrate, 191 
American cannabis, 153 

hemp, 153 

hellabore, 95 

wormseed, 278 
Ammonia, 72-360 

aromatic spirits, 361 

as counterirritant, 342 

circulatory stimulant, 90 
respiratory stimulant, 287 
liniment, 361 
water, 360 

stronger, 360 
Ammonium, 72-360 

acetate, 325 

solution of, 325 

alum, 436 

bromide. 155 

carbonate, 362 

chloride, 363 

iodide, 381 
Ammoniated mercury, 433 
Amygdala amara, 198 
Amygdalin, 198 
Amyl nitrite, 105 
Amylene chloral, 151 

hydrate, 151 
Amylis nitris, 105 
Amniform, 469 
Amylum, 479 
Analgesia, spinal, 186 
Analgesic antipyretics, 115 
Analgesics, 135 
Analgesine, 117 
Anaphylaxis, atropine in, 181 
Anemia, iron in, 404 

arsenic in, 390 
Anaphrodisiacs, 321-322 
Accidents, treatment for during anesthesia, 

169 
Anesthesia, 159—160 

by intratracheal insufflation, 169 

chloroform, 164 

colonic, 169 

delayed poisoning in, 163 

ether, 165 



Anesthesia, continued 

general, 158 

local, 184 

rectal, 169 

intravenous, 169 

theories of, 158 

caases of death from, 163 

local to prolong, adrenaline, 186 
Anesthesin, 192 
Anesthetics, 158 

chloroform as, 163 

as antidote to strychnine, 163 

ether, 165 

general, 158 

local, 184 

intravenous, 189 

creosote as local, 453 

Schleish's infiltration method, 189 
Anhydrids, 248 

Anhydromethylencitrate of soda, 469 
Anhydrotics, 326 

Aniline derivatives as antiseptics, 460 
Anilipyrine, 119 
Animal charcoal, 465 
Antemetics, 231 

phenol as, 451 

antacids as, 231 

chloroform as, 163 
Anthelmintics, 270 

turpentine as, 303 
Anodyne, Hoffman's, 164 
Anodynes in treatment of coughs, 290 
Antacids, 217 

as antemetics, 231 

gastric, 217 
Anthracene derivatives, 241 
Anthrax vaccine, 489 
Antibitters, 196 

Antidote to metallic poisoning, iodides as, 381 
Anticonvulsants, 136 
Antidote to strychnine poisoning, chloroform 

as, 132, 163 
Antidiarrheics, 263 
Antiferment. 

chloral as, 150 
Antifebrin, 166 
Anti -hog-cholera-serum, 496 
Antigalactics, 320 
Antigalactagogues, 320 
Antihydrotics, 323-326 
Antihysterics, 285 
Antimalarial antipyretics, 111 
Antimony, 394 

and potassium tartrate, 394 

chloride, 394 

oxide, 394 

sulphide, 394 

in trypanosome disease, 396 
Antipyretics, 111 

analgesic, 115 

coal tar, 115 

antimalarial, 111 

antirheumatic, 119 
Antinosin, 379 
Antipyrine, 117 
Antipyrin, 117 

Antirheumatic antipyretics, 119 
Antiseptics, 444. See disinfectants 
Antispasmodics. 157 
Antithyroid preparations, 384 
Antithyroidin moebus, 384 
Antistreptococcic serum, 479 
Antitoxins 485-495 
Aphrodisiacs, 321 
Apiol, 317 

liquid, 317 
Apocynein, 83 
Apocynum, 72-83 
Apolysin, 119 
Apomorphine, 227 

Apothecary's system of weights and meas- 
ures, 7 



INDEX 



503 



Appalach tea, 126 

Approximate equivalents of weights and 

measures, 8—10 
Aqua definition, 22 
ammonia?, 360 
fortior, 360 
regia, 366 
Areca catechu, 279 
nut. 208-279 
semines, 208-279 
Arecaine, 279 
Arecoline. 208-279 

hydrobromine, 208-279 
as a purgative, 257 
Arecovetro, 97 
Anstol, 378 
Argentamin, 418 
Argentum, 415 
cyanide, 415 
nitrate, 416 
fused, 416 
mitigated, 416 
oxide, 415 
soluble, 418 
Argyrism, 415 
Argyrol, 418 
Aromatic bitters, 215 
6ulphuric acid, 367 
Arrow poison, 81-199 
Arsacetin, 392 
Arsenic, 385 
antidote, 409 
iodide, 392 
toxicology, 388 
trioxide, 385 
Arsenum, 385 
Arsenous acid, 385 
solution of, 385 
oxide, 385 
Arsenphenol amine-hydrochloride, 393 
Arnica, 341 
flores, 341 
Montana, 341 
Arnicin, 341 
Asafoetida, 157 
Asagraea officialis, 95 
Ascaris, remedies for, 276 
Aspergillus oryzae, 220 
Aspidinal, 272 
Aspidinin, 272 
Aspidium, 272 
Aspirin, 123 
Assaying, 43 
Astringents, 259 
alum as, 437 
for dog. 147 

horse, 147. See prescriptions 
mineral, 261 
vegetable. 261 
Atophan, 124 
Atoxyol, 392 
Atropia belladonna, 174 
Atropine, 72-174 

as a local anesthetic, 194 

circulatory and respiratory stimulant, 

181-287 
mydriatic, 180-213 
in anaphylaxis, 181 
in keratitis. 180 
methyl, 213 
Aurantii amari cortex, 217 
Autogenous bacterins, 494 
Azoturia, arecoline in, 211 
adrenaline in, 100 

B 

Bacterin, 488 

Bacterins, serums, vaccines and antitoxins, 

485 
Baking soda, 351 
Bacterins, 493 



Bacterial immunity, 488 
Ball, 41 

Balsam, definition of, 4 
of Peru, 341 
copaiba, 297 
copaiva, 297 
Bandage, Frohner's camphor, 87 
Barbadoes aloes, 241 
Barium, 357 
chloride, 357 

as a circulatory stimulant, 90 
as a purgative, 257 
Barosma betulini, 306 
Basham's mixture, 407 
Bean, calabar, 203 

ordeal, 203 
Bearberry, 307 
Beebe's serum, 384 
Beeswax, 477 
Belladonna, 174 
folia, 174 
group, 174 
radix, 174 
in heaves, 178 
to relax spasm, 179 
Belladonnine, 174 

Benzene gr.oup of disinfectants, 447 
Benzoic acid, 471 
Benzoinated lard, 475 
Benzonaphthol, 460 
Berberine, 134 
Beta eucaine, 191 
Betanaphthol, 460 

for hook worms, 280 
Betel nut, 279 
Bhang, 152 

Bichloride of mercury, 429 
Bile, effects of drugs on, 233 
Bile salts, 233 
Biniodide of mercury, 432 
Bismuth, 419 

and ammonium citrate, 419/ 
citrate, 419 

in gastric irritation, 420 
in intestinal irritation, 420 
in nausea, 420 
milk of, 419 
paste, 421 
poisoning, 420 
betanaphthol, 460 
oxide and betanaphthol, 460 1 
subcarbonate, 419 
subgallate, 419 
subnitrate, 419 
subsalicylate, 419 
Bismuthum, 419 
Bitartrate of potash, 296 
Bitter almond, 198 

apple, 251 
Bitters, 215 
anti, 196 
aromatic, 215 
astringent, 215 
simple, 215 
Blackberry, 269 
Black haw, 319 
Black leg aggressin, 493 
serum, 498 
vaccine, 492 
lotion, 432 
snake root, 217 
Blaud's pills, 405 
Bleaching powder, 372 
Bleeding, 109 

gelatin in 330 
Blistering, 333 
Blood letting, 109 

pressure, to increase, 73 

lower, 90 
transfusion, 102 

volume of in arteries, to decrease, 109 
increase, 102 



504 



INDEX 



Blue flag, 252 

mass, 428 

as a diuretic, 298 

ointment, 429 

stone, 441 

vitriol, 411 
Bolus, 41 
Bone black, 465 
Bones, action of calcium on, 354 

phosphorus, 354 
Boracic acid, 470 
Borax, 471 
Boric acid, 470 
Borneol camphor, 89 
Brandy, 170 
Brassica nigra, 338 
Brayera, 247 
Bromide of ammonium, 155 

calcium, 155 

ethyl, 168 

lithium, 155 

potassium, 155 

sodium, 155 

strontium, 155 

zinc, 155 
Bromides, 155 

comparison of, 156 

in epilepsy, 157 
Bromism, 156 
Bromine, 371 
Bromoform, 168 
Bromural, 152 
Broom, 295 
Brown mixture, 479 
Brucine, 129 
Bryonia, 250 

alba, 250 
Bryony, 250 
Buckthorn, 245 

California, 245 
Buchu, 306 
Burns, phenol, alcohol as a preventive, 449 

picric acid in, 459 
Burnt alum, 437 

lime 356 

magnesia, 359 
Burow's solution, 437 
Butternut, 252 
Butyl chloral hydrate, 150 



Cacodyllic acid, 392 
Cactin, 90 

Cactus grandiflorus, 90 
Caffeina, 126 

citrata, 127 

efferveseens, 127 
Caffeine, 126 

allies, 126 

citrate, 127 

and sodium benzoate, 127 
salicylate, 127 

as a circulatory stimulant, 72 
diuretic, 294 

respiratory stimulant, 287 
Calabar bean, 203 
Calabarine, 203 
Calamine, 413 
Calamus, 217 
Calcii bromidum, 155 

carbonas prsecipitatus, 356 
as antacid, 218 
Calcined magnesia, 359 
Calcium bromide, 155 

chloride, 331 

glycerophosphate, 400 

hydrate, 356 

hydroxide, 356 

lactate, 331 

phosphate, 399 
precipitated, 399 



Calcium, continued 

phenolsulphonate, 452 

sulphate, dried, 357 

sulphide, crude, 441 

sulphocarbolate, 452 
California buckthorn, 245 
Calomel, 431 

as a cathartic, 431 
diuretic, 298 
in corneal opacities, 432 
Calx, 356 

chlorinata, 372 

sulphurata, 441 
Cambogia, 250 
Camphor, 72, 85 

bandage, Frohner's, 87 

and phenol in burns, 87 

as a circulatory stimulant, 72 
antipyretic, 88 
antispasmodic, 87 
carminative, 87 
respiratory and circulatory stimulant, 88 

borneol, 89 

chloral, 148 

in pruritis, 87 
shock, 86 

liniment, 86 

monobromated, 87 

phenique, 87 

water, 86 
Camphora, 85 
Canadine, 134 

Canine distemper, creosote in, 453 
Cannabinine, 153 
Cannabinol, 153 
Cannabis, 152 

Africana, 153 

Americana, 153 

as a narcotic, 154 

Indica, 152 

Sativa, 152 
Canadian hemp, 72 
Cantharides, 336 

as aphrodisiac, 321 

genitourinary stimulant, 308 

irritant and counterirritant, 336 
Cantharidial collodion, 480 
Cantharis, 336 

vesicatoria, 336 
Cape aloes, 241 
Capsicum, 222 

as irritant, 342 
Capsular, 42 

antithyroidea?, 384 
Carbo, 465 

animalis, 465 

ligni, 465 
Carbolic acid, 447 
Carbon, 465 

Carbonate of ammonium, 362 
Carbonization, definition of, 13 
Cardamon, 224 
Cardiac depressants, 90 

stimulants, 72 
Carica papaya, 220 
Carminatives, 221 

as antemetics, 231 
antiseptics, 221 
chloroform as, 163 
turpentine as, 223 
Carrel-Dakin antiseptic, 372 
Carron oil, 356 
Cascara sagrada, 295 
Castile soap, 480 
Cascarilla, 217 
Cassia, 245 
Castor oil, 239 
Catechu, 267 
Cathartics, 232 

Causes of death from chloroform, 163 
Caustic potash, 348 

soda, 350 



INDEX 



505 



Caustics, 344 

copper sulphate as, 412 

lunar, 416 

mitigated, 416 

phenol as, 449 
Central emetics, 224 

nervous sedatives, 135 
as antemetics, 231 
in cough, 290 

nervous stimulants, 126 
Cephaeiin, 229 
Cephaelis cacuminata, 229 

ipecacuanha, 229 
Cera, 477 

alba, 477 

flava, 477 
Cerates, 39 

Ceratum, definition, 39 
Cerium, 421 

oxalate, 421 
Cetaceum, 477 
Cevadilla, 95 
Cevadine, 95 
Chalk, drop, 355 

mixture, 355 

prepared, 355 

precipitated, 355 
Charas, 152 
Charcoal, 465 

animal, 465 

willow, 465 

wood, 465 
Chart®, 17-40 
Chemic incompatibility, 45 

rules for, 46 
Chemistry of plants, 2 
Chemiphila, 308 
Chenopodium, 278 

anthelminticum, 378 
Chinosol, 470 
Chloral, 147 
Chloralarnide, 151 
Chloral hydrate, 147 

as antiferment, 150 
hypnotic, 150 
narcotic, 149 

in strychnine poisoning, 150 
Chloral camphor, 148 
Chlor butanol, 151 
Chloretone, 151 

as a local anesthetic, 193 
Chlorine, 372 
Chloride of iron, 407 
Chloride of zinc, 414 
Chlorinated lime, 372 
Chloroform, 161 

as an anesthetic, 163 
antemetic, 163, 231 
antidote to strychnine, 163 
carminative, 163 

in cough, 163 
eclampsia, 163 

as liniment, 164 
vermicide, 163 

causes of death from, 163 
uses, 163 
Cholagogue, 133 
Cholera mixture, sun, 146, 264 
Chlorum, 372 
Chromic acid, 435 
Chromium, 435 

sulphate, 435 

trioxide, 435 

as a caustic, 345 
Chrysarobin, 340 
Chrysarobinum, 340 
Chrysotoxin, 313 
Cimicifuga, 217 
Cinchona, 11 

as a bitter, 217 £1 
an antipyretic, 115 
Cinchonine, 111-112 



Cinchonidine, 112 
Cinchonism, 114 
Cinnamomum cumphora, 85 
Circulatory depressants, 90 

stimulants, 73 
as diuretics, 292 
Citarnin, 469 
Citric acid, 368 
Citrated caffeine, 127 
Citrate of iron, 410 

iron and ammonia, 410 

iron and quinine, 410 

and strychnine, 130-410 

potassium, 296 
Citrine ointment, 433 
Citrullus colocynthis, 251 
Clarification, definition, 16 
Classification of germicides, 445 

purgatives, 235 
Claviceps purpurea, 311 
Coagulants as styptics, 328 
Coal tar antipyretics, 115 

creosote, 454 
Coated tablets, 41 
Coca, 185 

erythroxylon, 185 
Cocaine, 185 

hydrochloride as a local anesthetic, 185 
mydriatic, 213 

respiratory and circulatory stimulant, 
189 

substitutes, 190 
Coction, 67 
Codeine, 137-145 

phosphate, 145 

sulphate, 145 
Cod liver oil, 220 
Coffee Arabica, 126 
Colation, definition, 16 
Cold, as local anesthetic, 194 
Colic from purgatives, 233 

ammonium carbonate in, 362 

rapid purgatives, 233 
Collargol, 418 
Collodium, 480 

cantharidatum, 480 

definition, 27 

flexile, 480 

stypticum, 480 
Collodion, 480 
Colloidal silver, 418 
Colocynth, 251 
Colon, irrigations of, 258 
Colonic anesthesia, 169 
Comminution, definition, 12 
Comparison of cocaine and substitutes, 193 

morphine and opium, 143 
Compound acetanilid powder, 116 

cathartic pills, 431 

chalk powder, 478 

cresol solution, 457 

laxative pills, 130 

morphine powder, 138 

licorice mixture, 479 
powder, 296, 439 

solution of iodine, 374 -, 

spirits of ether, 164 

juniper, 306, t , , 

syrup of hypophosphites, 130 
squill, 82 
Compressed tablets, 41 
Confection, definition, 37 
Coniine, 199 
Conine, 199 
Conium, 199 
Convallamarin, 83 
Convallaria, 72-83 
Convallarin, 83 
Convolvulus scammonia, 251 
Copaiba 299 

balsam of, 299 
Capaiva, 299 



506 



INDEX 



Copper, 411 
arsenite, 392 
oieate, 412 
sulphate, 411 
as caustic, 412 
emetic, 227 
vermifuge, 412 
Copperas, 4o6 

Corneal opacities, dionin in. 146 
ulcers, caiomel in, 432 
silver nitrate in, 417 
Cornsiik, 308 
Cornsmut, 317 
Cornutin, 312-313 
Corrosive mercuric chloride, 429 

sublimate, 429 
Cosmolene, 476 
Cotarnine, 329, 135 
Cotton root bark, 317 

seed oil, 238, 476 
Cough, chloroform in, 163 
codeine, 145 
heroine, 144 
expectorants, 288 
morphine, 143 
theory of treatment, 289 
Counterirritants, 332 
as antemetics, 231 
Cramp bark, 319 
Cranesbill, 267 
Cream of tartar, 296 
Crede's ointment, 419 

salt, 418 
Creolin, 457 
Creosote, 453 

carbonate, 454 
Creosotal, 454 
Cresol, 457 

compound solution of, 457 
preparations, 457 
Creta preparata, 355 
Crisis. 67 

Croton chloral hydrate, 150 
oil, 248 
tiglium, 248 
Crude digitalein, 84 
Crystalline gratus strophanthin, 85 
Cubeb, 300 
Cubeba, 300 
Cubebo, 300 
Culver's root. 252 
Cupping, 334 
dry, 100 
wet, 100 
Curacao aloes, 241 
Curare, 199 
Curcurbita pepo, 275 
Cuca, 185 
Cupri arsenis, 392 

sulphas, 411 
Cusso, 247 

Cyanide of mercury, 434 
potash, 198 
silver, 415 
Cynips tinctoria, 265 
Cystogen, 469 
Cysts, iodine in, 375 
Cytisus scoparius, 202-295 



D 



Dakin's antiseptic, 372 

Dalmatian insect powder, 286 

Damiana, 321 

Dandelion, 217 

Datura stramonium, 183 

Daturine, 183 

Dawson's solution, 102 

Deadly nightshade, 174 

Death, causes of from anesthesia, 163 

Decantation, definition, 16 



Decoction, 28 

Decoctum definition, 28 

Definitions, 1 

Delayed chloroform poisoning, 163 

Dehydrated alcohol, 170 

Deiphinum, 94 

Demulcents, 464 

Deodorant, potassium permanganate as, 464 

Deodorized alcohol, 170 

tincture of opium, 137 
Deoxidizers, 462-465 
Depillatories, 346 
Depressants, cardiac, 90 

central nervous, 135 

circulatory, 90 

peripheral nervous, 174 

respiratory, 288 
Dermatol, 419 

Desiccated thyroid glands, 383 
Desiccation definition, 12 
Diacetyl morphine, 137-144 
Diachylon plaster, 426 

ointment, 426 
Diagnostic agents, 482 
Diaphoresis, 323 

character of sweat, 323 

methods of producing, 324 
Diaphoretics, 323 
Diarrhea, calomel in, 432 

methods of treatment, 263 
Diaspirin, 123 
Diastase, 220 
Dichromate of potash, 436 
Different species of animals, doses for, 66 
Digalen, 85 
Digallic acid, 261 
Digestive ferments, 219 
Digipoten, 85 
Digipuratum, 85 
Digitalein, 74 
Digitalin, 84 

amorphe, 85 

Homolle's, 84 

Nativelle's crystalline, 84 

true, 84 
Digitalinum crudum, 84 

French, 84 

Germanicum, 84 
Digitalis, 72—74 

action of, 74 

on different animals, 79 

as an antipyretic, 80 

cardiac tonic and stimulant, 80 
diuretic, 84, 294 
diagnostic agent, 81 
constituents, 74 
group, 72 
principles, 84 

proprietary preparations, 85 
purpurea, 74 
toxicology, 79 
Digitonin, 74 
Digitoxin, 74-85 
Dilators, arterial, 105 

renal, as diuretics, 292 
Dilute acids, effects of, 364 
Diluted alcohol, 170 

acetic acid, 368 

hydrocyanic acid, 196 

hydrochloric acid, 366 

mercurial ointment, 429 

nitric acid, 366 

phosphoric acid, 367 
Dimethyl arsenic, 392 
Dionine, 145 

as a local anesthetic, 193 

in corneal opacities, 146 
Diodoform, 379 
Direct effect, 62 

renal stimulants, 393 
Disinfectants, 445 



INDEX 



507 



Disinfectants, continued 

for gastrointestinal tract, 474 
gemto-urinary system, 299, 474 
mucous membranes, 473 
skin diseases, 473 
stables, 472 
surgical supplies, 474 
wounds, 474 
Dispensing tablets, 41 
Dispensatory, 6 
Dispensing, 17 

Distemper, canine, creosote in, 453 
Distillation, definition, 13 
Diuretics, 292 

blue mass as, 298 

calomel as, 298 

lithium salts, 298 

salines as, 295 
Dobeil's solution, 447 
Dog button, 129 
Donovan s solution, 385, 432 
Doriniol, 151 

Doses for different species, 66 
Dover's powder, 137 
Dried alum, 437 

calcium sulphate, 357 

ferrous sulphate, 406 

sodium arsenatei 386 
sulphate, 442 

thyroid glands, 383 
Drastics, 284, 236 
Drench, 43 
Drop chalk, 355 
Drug, definition, 1 
Dry cupping, 110 
Drying, 12 
Dryopteris filix mas, 272 

marginata, 272 
Duotal, 455 

Dusting powders, 475-479 
Dyspepsia, acids in, 365 
Dystokia, pituitary solution in, 101 
Dysuria, diuretics in, 296 

E 

■ Early bird worm remedy, 275 
Ecbolic volatile oils, 286, 317 
Ecbolics, 310-312 
Ecballium elaterium, 249 
Eczema, calcium in, 355 

salicylic acid in, 122 

calomel in, 432 
Eclampsia, chloroform in, 163 
Edema of glottis, guaiacol for, 455 
Effect, direct, 62 

immediate, 62 

indirect, 62 

late, 62 

primary, 62 
Effects of drugs on bile, 233 

removal of thyroids, 383 
Effervescent citrated caffeine, 127 
Ehrlich's side chain theory of immunity, 487 

"606," 393 
Eigon, 379 
Elaterin, 249 
Elaterium, 249 
Electricity as irritant, 334 
Electuary definition, 43 
Elixir, definition, 27 

of phosphates of iron, quinine and strych- 
nine, 130 
Elm, slippery, 479 
Emesis, methods of producing, 225 
Emetic, alum as, 227, 437 

copper sulphate as, 227, 412 

mustard as, 227 

zinc sulphate as, 227 
Emetics, 225 

alkalies as, 226 

contraindications for, 225 



Emetics, continued 

direct, 225 
general, 225 

indirect, 225 

ipecac as. 229 

local, 225 

metallic salts as, 226 
reflex, 225 

topical, 225 

uses of, 225 
"Emetine, 225 
Emmenagogue, 310 
Emollients, 475 
Emplastrum, definition, 40 

hydrargyri, 429 

plumbi, 426 
Emulsin, 198 
Emulsion, 25 
Emulsum, definition, 25 
Endermatic method of administering drugs, 

66 
Enema, 255 

nutritive, 258 
Epilepsy, bromides in, 157 
Eniepidermic method of administering drugs, 

66 
Enlarged glands, iodine in, 375 
Epidermic method of administering drugs, 

66 
Epinephrine, 72, 98. See adrenaline 
Epsom salts, 254 
Euquinine, 112 
Ergot, 311 

of rye, 311 
Ergota, 311 
Ergontine, 312 
Ergotinine, 312 
Ergotism, 315 
Ergotoxin, 312 
Erigeron, oil of, 306 
Eriodictyon, 196 
Erotics, 321 

Erythrol tetranitrite, 106 
Erythroxylon truxillense, 185 
Escharotics, 344 
Eseridine. 203 
Eserine, as myotic, 205 

purgative, 256 
Essential oils, 282 
Ether, 164, 72 

anesthesia, 165 

as an anesthetic, 164 
antispasmodic! 166 
circulatory stimulant, 89 

compound spirits of. 164 

nitrous, spirits of, 298, 325 

sulphuric, 164 

untoward sequels from, 168 
Ethyl alcohol, 170 

bromide, 168 

chloride, 167 

morphine, 145 

nitrate, 106 
Eucaine, 191 
Euonymus, 83 
Euphorbium, 341 
Euphthalmine, 184, 214 
Europhen, 378 
Evaporation, definition, 13 
Excessive secretions, atropine in, 179 
Exhaustion theory of immunity, 487 
Excito-motors, 129 
Exogonium purga, 250 
Expectant treatment, 68 
Expectorants, 288 

apomorphine as, 228 

creosote as, 453 

depressant, 288 

indifferent, 288 

ipecac as, 230 

sedative, 288 

stimulant, 288 



508 



INDEX 



Expectorants, continued 

tartar emetic as, 395 

turpentine as, 303 
Expressed oil of almond, 238, 476 
Expression, definition, 16 
Extractum, definition, 35 

F 

Factors which modify action of drugs, 62 
Febrifuges, 111 
Fel bovis, 237 
tauri, 237 
Ferments, digestive, 219 
Ferratin, 410 
Ferri carbonas, 405 
saccharatus, 405 

chloridum, 407 

citras, 410 

et ammonii citras, 410 
sulphas, 410 
tartras, 410 

et quininse citras, 410 

et strychnin® citras, 410 

hydroxidum, 409 

cum magnesii oxido, 409 
Ferric alum, 409 

hydroxide, 409 

with magnesia oxide, 409 

hypophosphite, 409 

phosphate, 408 

pyrophosphate, 410 

salts, 407 

valerinate, 410 
Ferrous carbonate, 405 

iodide, 406 

salts, 405 

sulphate, 406 
dried, 406 
granulated, 406 
Ferrum, 404 

albuminatum, 410 

reductum, 405 
Ferrula foetida, 157 
Fibrolysin, 339 
Filicic acid, 272 
Filicin, 272 
Filix mas, 272 
Filmaron, 272 
Filtration, definition, 16 
Fixed oils as purgatives, 238 
Flaxseed poultice, 478 
Flavaspidinin, 272 
Flavospadic acid, 272 
Fleabane, 306 

Flemming's tincture of aconite, 91 
Flexible collodion, 480 
Fluidextract, definition,' 31 

type processes, 32 
Flowers of sulphur, 439 
Fly — Spanish, 336, 321, 308 
Formaldehyde, 466 
Formalin, 466 
Formic aldehyde, 466 
Formin. 469 

Fowler's solution of arsenic, 385 
Fox glove, 74 
Frangula, 245 

Frohner's camphor bandage, 87 
Fructus juniperus, 305 
Fuller's earth, 480 
Furbringer's method of disinfecting the 

hands, 473 
Fused silver nitrate, 416 

G 

Galactagogues, 320 
Galactics, 320 
Galla, 265 
Gallic acid, 265 
Gallotannic acid, 261 



Galls, 265 
Gambir, 266 
Gamboge. 250 
Ganga, 152 

Garcinia hanburii, 250 
Gastric antacids, 217 
Gelatin, 329 

glycerinated, 329 
Gelsemine, 200 
Gelseminine, 200 
Gelsemium, 200 

Genative case, rules to govern, 52 
General action of drugs, 62 

analgesics, 135 

anesthesia, 136 
intravenou 169 

anesthetics, 1.6 

disinfectants, 472 

emetics, 225 

measures to prevent complications, 168 
Genito-urinary disinfectants, 299, 474 

stimulants, 299 
German digitalin, 84 
Gentian, 216 
Geranium, 2.67 

Germicides, 445. See disinfectants 
Gin, Holland, 306 
Ginger, 222 
Glacial acetic acid, 368 
Gland, suprarenal, dried, 98 

thyroid, dried, 383 
Glandular suprarenales siccse, 98 

thyroideaa sicca?, 383 
Glauber's salts. 255 
Glonoin, 105 
Glutol, 468 
Glucoside definition, 4 
Glycerin, 477 

suppositories, 39 
Glycerinated gelatin, 329 
Glycerinum, 477 
Glycerite; definition of, 27 

of boroglycerin, 470 
phenol, 477 

phosphates of iron, quinine and strych- 
nine, 130 
Glyceritum, 27 
Glycerole, 477 
Glycerophosphates, 399 
Glyceryl trinitrate, 105 
Glycyrrhiza, 479 
Goa powder, 340 
Goiter, iodides in, 375 

thvroid gland in, 384 
Golden seal^ 133 
Gossypii cortex, 317 
Goulard's extract, 425 
Grammatical construction of prescriptions, 

52 
Granatum, 273 

Granulated ferrous sulphate, 406 
Gray powder, 428 
Green ferrous carbonate, 405 

iodide of mercury, 433 

soap, 481 

vitriol, 406 
Griffith's mixture, 405 
Gross anatomy of plants, 2 
Guaiacol, 455 

carbonate, 455 
Gum arabic, 478 

definition of, 4 

myrrh, 318 

resins, definition, 4 i 
Gun shot prescriptions, 68 
Guvacine, 279' 
Gymnemic acid, 196 



Hahnemann, 68 
Halogens, 371, 465 
Haloids, group of,. 371 



INDEX 



509 



Hamamelis, 268 

Hands, disinfectants for, 472 

Harrington s solution, 473 

Haschisk, 152 

Haustus, 43 

Heat as a disinfectant, 324 

diaphoretic, 446 
Heaves, arsenic in, 391 

belladonna in, 179 
Heavy calcined magnesia, 359 

magnesium oxide, 359 
Hebra's itch ointment, 441 
Hedeoma, 318 
Hedonal, 152 
Hellabore, 95 
Helmintal, 469 
Hemols. 411 
Hematoxylin, 267 
Hematoxylon, 267 
Hemp, 152 

Hemorrhage, adrenaline in, 100 
calcium, 331 
emetine, 231 
infusions in, 104 
pituitrin in, 101 
Hemostatic, alum as, 437 
gelatin as, 330 
turpentine as, 302 
Hemostatics, 327 
Henbane, 181 
Heroine, 144, 137 
Hexamethylenamina, 469 
Hexamethylenamine, 469 
Hexamethylentetramine, 469 
Hints on prescription writing, 51 
Hippocrates, 67 
Hirudo, 110 
Histamin, 312 
History of therapeutics, 66 
Hive syrup, 394 
Hoffman's anodyne, 164 
Holocaine, 192 
Holland gin, 306 
Homeopathy, 68 
Homolle's digitalin, 84 
Homotropine, 184 

as a mydratic, 213 
Honey, definition of, 25 
Hookworms, treatment of, 280 
Hops, 217 
Hormonal, 220 

Humeral theory of immunity, 487 
Humors, 67 
Humulus, 217 
Hydragogues, 236, 292 
Hydrargyri ammoniatum, 413 
chloridum corrosivum, 431 

mite, 431 
cyanidum, 434 
iodidum flavum, 433 
rubrum, 343, 432 
nitras, 433 
oxidum flavum, 434 

rubrum, 434 
salicylas, 434 
subsulphas, 434 
Hydrargyrum, 428, 426 

cum creta, 428 
Hydrastine, 134 
Hydrastinine, 134 
Hydrastis, 133 ' 
Hydrated aluminum silicate, 480 

chloral, 147 
Hydremic plethora, 292 
Hydriodic acid, diluted, 382 
Hydrobromic acid, diluted, 155 
Hydrochloric acid, 365 

diluted, 365 
Hydrocyanic acid, diluted, 166 
Hydro ergotinin, 313 
Hydrogen peroxide, 463 . 
Hydrous wool fat, 476 



Hygenia abyssinica, 274 
Hyoscine, 181 

as hypnotic, 182 
mydriatic, 213 
Hyoscy amine, 181 

as mydriatic, 213 
Hyoscyamus, 181 
Hypertonic solutions, 103 
Hypnotics, 135-136 
Hypochlorites, 372 
Hypodermic tablets, 41 
Hypodermoclysis, 104 
Hypophosphite of manganese, 455 
Hypophosphites, 399 

syrup of, 399 
Hypophysis sicca, 100 
Hypotonic solutions, 103 



Ichthalbin, 443 
Ichthargan, 443 
Ichthoform, 443 
Ichthyol, 443 
Idiosyncrasy, 63 
Ignition, definition, 13 
Immediate effects, 52 
Immunity, active, 488 

passive, 488 
Incompatibility, 45 
chemic, 45 

depending upon change of solvent, 46 
pharmaceutical, 46 
physical, 46 
physiological, 46 
therapeutic, 46 
Indirect effect, 62 
Indian cannabis, 152 
hemp, 152 
tobacco, 199 
Infusion, definition, 28 
saline, 102 

in collapse and shock, 104 
in hemorrhage, 104 
toxemic conditions, 104 
Ingluvin, 220 
Inscription, 49—50 
Insect powder, 286 
Insecticides, volatile oils as, 286 
Insufflation, intratracheal, 169 
Intesintal antiseptics, calomel as, 432 
phenolsulphonates as, 442 
salol as, 123 
salicylates as, 122 
sulphocarbolate& as, 452 
Intoxication, acid, 364 
Intratracheal insufflation, 169 
Intravenous general anesthesia, 169 
local anesthesia, 189 

method of administration of drugs, 65 
Introduction to pharmacy, 62 
Inunction, 66 
Iodide of ammonium, 381 
lead, 382 
potash, 379 
soda, 381 
strontium, 382 
sulphur, 382 
Iodides, 379 
Iodine, 374 

as irritant, 343 
Iodipin, 382 
Iodism, 375-380 
Iodized sesame oil, 382 
Iodoform, 376 

substitutes, 377 
Iodoformal, 378V. , 
Iodoformin, 378 
Iodoformogen, 378 
Iodoformum, 376 ; . 
Iodol, 378 
Iodolum, 378 



510 



INDEX 



Iodophenin, 119 
Ioduin, 374 
Ipecac, 229 
Ipecacuanha, 229 
Iris, 252 
Iron, 402 

and ammonium citrate, 410 
tartrate, 410 
quinine citrate, 410 
strychnine citrate, 410 
by hydrogen, 405 
chloride, 4u7 
hydroxide, 409 

with magnesium oxide, 409 
hyophosphite, 409 
protosulphate, 406 
subsulphate, 408 
Irrigations, colon or rectal, 258 
Irritant and ecbohc volatile oils, 311 
counterirritants, 332 
in skin diseases, 334 
Isopelletierine, 273 
Isotonic solutions, 103 
Itrol, 418 



Jaborandi, 206 
Jaborine, 206 
Jamestown weed, 183 
Jalap, 250 
Jasmine, yellow, 200 
Jervine, 95 
Jimson weed, 183 
Juglans, 252 
Juniper, 305 

berries, 305 

tar oil, 340, 357 

K 

Kamala, 274 

Kaolin, 480 

Kaolinum, 480 

Kino, 266 

Kombe arrow poison, 81 

Kousso, 274 

Koussotoxin, 275 

Krameria, 266 

Keratitis, atropine in, 180 

dionine in, 146 

calomel, 432 

oxide of mecury, 434 



Labelling, 20 
Lac sulphur, 439 
Lactic acid, 369 
Lactics, 320 
Lactifuges, 320 
Lactophenin, 119 
Laminitis, alum in, 437 

acetanilide, 117 

adrenaline, 100 

arecoline, 211 

bloodletting, 109 
Lanolin, 476 
Lard, 475 
Largin, 418 
Larkspur, 94 
Late effect, 62 

Latin words and phrases, 55 
Laudanum, 137 
Laughing gas, 167 
La-w's mange dip, 202 
Laxatives, definition of, 235 
Lead, 421 

acetate, 424 

and opium wash, 137 

iodide, 382, 425 

nitrate, 425 



Lead, continued 
plaster, 426 
oxide, 425 
subacetate, 424 
toxic doses, 423 
toxicology, 424 
Lecithin, 400 
Leeches, 110 
Leptandra, 252 
Levant wormseed, 276 
Licorice> 479 

mixture, compound, 479 
powder, compound, 296, 439 
Life root, 417 
Light magnesia, 359 
Lime, 356 
burnt, 356 
quick, 356 
slaked, 356 
water, 356 

as antacid, 218 
Lime-sulphur dip, 440 
Liniment, definition, 36 
Linimentum, 36 
ammonise, 361 
calcis, 356 
camphorse, 86 
Linseed, 478 

oil, 238 
Linum, 478 
Liquefied phenol, 447 
Liquid apiol, 317 

petrolatum, 237, 476 
preparations, 21 
prescriptions, 59 
Liquor, definition, 24 
aluminii acetatis, 437 
ammonii acetatis, 363 
acidi arsenosi, 385 
arseni et hydrargyri, 385 

iodidi, 432 
calcis, 356 

as antacid, 218 
chlori compositus, 372 
cresolis compositus, 457 
Liquor ferri chloridi, 407 

et ammonii acetatis, 407 
subsulphatis, 408 
tersulphatis, 408 
formaldehydi, 466 
hydrargyri nitratis, 433 
hydroge^ii dioxidi, 463 
hypophysis, 90-100 
morphinse hypodermaticus, 147 
plumbi et opii, 425 
subacetatis, 425 
dilutus, 425 
potassii arsenitis, 385 

citratis, 296 
sodii arsenatis, 386 

boratis compositus, 447 
chloridi physiologicus, 352 
zinci chloridi, 414 
Litharge, 425 
Lithium bromide, 155 
carbonate, 288 
salicylate, 120 
salts of, as diuretics, 298 
Litholvtics, 292 
Lithothryptics, 292 
Liver of sulphur, 442 
Lobelia, 199 
Lobeline, 199 
Local action, 62 

action of irritants, 332 
anesthetics, 184 
phenol as, 450 

quinine and urea hydrochloride as, 
114 
emetics, 225 

sedatives as antemetics, 231 
Locke's solution, 102 
Logwood, 267 



INDEX 



511 



Losophan, 379 
Lotio flava, 431 

plumbi et opii, 137 

nigra, 432 
Lugoi's solution. 374 
Lunar caustic, 416 
Lung worms, treatment for, 281 

creosote in, 454 
Lycopodium, 480 
Lysol, 547 

M 

Maceration, definition, 14 
Magendie's solution of morphine, 138-147 
Magma bismuthi, 419 
definition, 2 6 
magnesii, 359 
Magnesia, 357 
burnt, 359 
calcined, 359 
heavy, 359 
light, 359 
Magnesium, 359 
carbonate, 359 

as antacid, 218 
oxide, 359 

as antacid, 218 
laxative, 255 
silicate, 480 
salicylate, 120 
sulphate, 259 

as antidote to lead, 254 
a local anesthetic, 194 
in tetanus, 255 
poisoning by, 255 
Malakin, 124 
Male fern, 272 
Male shield fern, 272 
Mallein, 483 

Malodorous volatile oils, 284 
Mandrake, 250 
Manganese, 435 
dioxide, 435 
hypophosphite, 435 
sulphate, 435 
Manganum, 435 
Mange, copper oleate in, 412 
dip, 202 
prescriptions for, 342, 273, 440, 441, 

442, 451 
tobacco in, 202 
Marshmallow, 479 
Mass of mercury, 428 

ferri carbonatis, 406 
Massa, definition, 37 

blue, 428 
Mastitis, formalin in, 467 
methylene blue in, 461 
Materia medica of salines, 254 
Matico, 301 
May apple, 250 
Measures and weights, 7 
Measuring, 11 
Mellita, definition, 25 
Menstruum, 15 
Mentha piperita, 223 

viridis, 224 
Menthol, 195 
Merck's creolin, 457 
Mercurial ointment, 429 

plaster, 429 
Mercurials as laxatives, 246 
Mercuric ammonium chloride, 433 
chloride, 429 
iodide, 432 
subsulphate, 434 
Mercurous chloride, 431 

iodide, 433 
Mercury, 426-428 
with chalk, 428 
Mesotan, 124 

Metallic salts as emetics, 226 
germicides, 446 



Methods of administering medicines, 64 
Methods of decreasing the volume of blood, 
109 

increasing the volume of blood, 102 

producing diaphoresis, 324 

irritation and counterirritation, 333 

treatment, 68 
Methyl alcohol, 173 

atropine, 213 

morphine, 145 

ouabain, 81 

punicine, 273 

salicylate, 125 
Methylene blue, 461 
Methylthionine chloride, 461 
Metritis, iodine for, 376 

iodoform, 377 
Metric weights and measures, 9 
Metrology, 7 

Meyer-Overton theory of narcosis, 158 
Migranum, 119 
Mild mercurous chloride, 431 
Milk of bismuth, 419 

magnesia, 359 

sulphur, 439 
Mindererus, spirit of, 363 
Mineral oil, 237 
Miscellaneous disinfectants, 466 
Mistura cretse, 355 

definition of, 26 

ferri composita, 405 

glycyrrhizEe, 479 

pectoralis ( Stokes' ) , 82 

rhei et soda, 244 
Mitigated caustic, 416 
Mixed bacterins, 494 
Mixtures, 26 
Monkshood, 91 
Monobromated camphor, 89 
Monsel's solution, 408 

powder, 408 
Moore-Roaf theory of narcosis, 158 
Morphina, 137 
Morphine, 137 

anesthesia, 143 

as a diaphoretic, 143 

diacetyl, 137-144 

hydrochloride. 137 

in cough, 143 

in diabetes, 143 

methyl, 145 

sulphate, 137 

to check hemorrhage, 143 
Motor nerve depressants, 196 
Mucilage, definition, 25 

of acacia, 478 
Muriate of ammonia, 363 

of soda, 352 
Muriatic acid, 366 
Mustard, as emetic, 227 

black, 338 

white, 338 
Mydriatics, 212 
Myotics, 214 

arecoline, 211, 214 

eserine, 214 

physostigmine, 214 

pilocarpine, 214 
Myrosin, 338 
Myrrh, 318 

N 
Naphthalenum, 459 
Naphthalin, 459 
Narcine, 137 
Narcosis, theories of, 158 
Narcotic, cannabis as, 154 

chloral hydrate as, 149 

poisoning, caffeine in, 128 
Narcotics. 135 
Narcotine. 137 

Nasal catarrh, camphor in, 88 
National formulatory, 6 
Nativelle's digitalin, 84 



512 



INDEX 



Natural immunity, 486 
Nausea, bismuth in, 420 

cerium oxalate in, 421 

cocaine in, 189 
Nauseants as diaphoretics, 324 
Neo-salvarsan, 393 
Nerve tonic, nux vomica as, 133 

phosphorus as, 398 
Neurodin, 119 
Nicotine, 201 
Nicotiana tobacum, 201 
Niter, 106, 297, 298 
Nitric acid, 366 

as a caustic, 345 
Nitrate of amyl, 165 

ethyl. 106 
Nitroglycerin, 105 
Nitrohydrochloric acid, 366 

muriatic acid, 366 
Nitrous ether, spirits of, 298, 325 
Nitrous oxide, 167 
Normal salt solution, 352 

oxyquinilin sulphate, 470 
Nosophen, 379 
Novaspirin, 123 
Novocain, 190 

nitrate, 191 
Nuclein, 400 
Nut, arecto, 279 

betel, 279 

galls, 265 
Nutritive enemata, 258 
Nux vomica, 129 

as aphrodisiac, 321 
as a bitter, 217 

O 

Occytoxics, 310 
Obesity, thvroid in, 383 
Oil of almond, 238 

bitter almond, 198 

cade, 340, 457 

carron, 356 

castor, 239 

chenopodium, 378 
for hookworms, 280 

cloves, 224 

cotton seed, 238 

erigeron. 306 

essential, 282 

linseed, 238 

mustard, volatile, 338 

sandal, 300 

sandalwood, 300 

sesame, iodized, 382 

sweet birch, 125 

vitriol, 367 

wintergreen, 125 
Oils, fixed, 4 

volatile, 4, 282 
Ointment, 38 

of ammoniated mercury, 433 
nitrate of mercury, 433 
yellow oxide of mercury, 434 
Oleatum, definition, 28 

hvdrargyri, 434 
Oleic acid, 370 
Oleoresina, definition, 34 

petroselini, 317 
Oleoresin, 34 

garden parsley, 317 
Oleum amygdali amari, 198 
expressum, 238, 476 

betula?, 125 

cadinum, 340, 457 

cajuputi, 224 

chenopodii, 278 

erigerontis, 306 

gaultheriaa, 125 

gossvpii seminis, 238, 476 

juniperi empyreumaticum, 340, 457 

lini, 238 

morrhuse, 220 



Oleum, continued 

olivse, 238, 476 

phosphoratum, 397 

picis liquidse, 456 

ricini, 239 

santali, 300 

sinipis volatile, 338 

terebinthinae, 301 
rectificatum, 301 

tiglii, 248, 343 
Olive oil, 238, 476 
Opium, 136 

as diaphoretic, 325 
Ordeal bean, 203 
Organic silver compounds, 417 
Orphol, 460 

Ortho-salicylic acid, 119 
Orthoform, 192 
Other saline purgatives, 255 
Ouabain, 81-85 
Ourouparia gambir, 266 
Oxgall, 237 
Oxalic acid, 369 
Oxide of silver, 415 
Oxidizers, 462 
Oxygen, 462 

Oxquinolin sulphate, 470 
Oxyures, treatment of, 270 

quassia in, 217 

quinine in, 114 

sodium chloride in, 353 



Pain, irritants in, 334 

Pancreatin, 219 

Pantopon, 138 

Papain, 220 

Papaverin, 137 

Papers, 40 

Paraffin, 477 

Paraffinum, 477 

Paraform, 468 

Paraformaldehydum, 468 

Paraldehyde, 151 

Parasiticide, corrosive sublimate as, 430 

iodine as, 375 

phenol as, 450 
Paregoric, 137 
Pareira, 308 
Paris green, 392 
Passive immunity, 488 
Pasteurization, 446 
Pearson's solution, 386 
Pelletierine, 273 
Pennyroyal, 318 
Pepper, cavenne, 222 

black, 222 

red, 222 
Peppermint, 223 
Pepo, 275 
Pepsin, 219 
Pepsinum, 219 „* 

Percentage solutions, to make, 60 
Percolation, 14 
Perchloride of mercury, 429 
Periodic ophthalmia, iodine in, 376 
Persian insect powder, 286 
Peru balsam, 341 
Peruvian bark, 111 
Petrolatum, 476 

album, 476 

liquidum, 237, 476 

petrolax, 237 
Petroleum jelly, 476 
Petroselinum, 317 

Phagocytosis, theory of immunity, 487 
Pharmaceutical incompatibility, 46 
Pharmaceutic methods, 12 
Pharmacopoeia, 6 
Pharmacy, 6 

proper, 21 
Pharmacology, definition of, 1 

introduction to, 62 



INDEX 



513 



Phenacetin, 118 
Phenic acid, 447 
Phenocol, 124 
Phenol, 447 

liquefactum, 447 
Phenolphthalein, 246 
Phenolsulphonate of calcium, 452 

sodium, 452 

zinc, 452 
Phenolsulphonates, 452 
Phenyl acetanide, 116 

salicylate, 122 
Phlebotomy, 109 
Phosphate of iron, 410 
Phosphorated oil, 397 
Phosphoric acid, 367 
Phosphorism, 398 
Phosphorus, 396 

as aphrodisiac, 321 

in bone disease, 398 

poisoning, turpentine in, 303 
Phylacogens, 498 

Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, calomel in, 
Physiological incompatibility, 46 

salt solution, 352 
Physostigma, 203 
Physostigmine, 203 

as a purgative, 256 
Picrasma excelsa, 216 
Picric acid, 459 
Picrol, 379 
Pills, definition, 37 
Pilocarpine, 206 

as a diaphoretic, 325 
purgative, 255 
myotic, 214 
Pilocarpus, 206 
Pilulae, 37 

asafcetidfe, 157 

cathartics compositae, 431 

ferri carbonatis, 405 

ferri iodidi, 406 

phosphori, 397 
Pine tar, 456 
Pink root, 278 
Pinus palustris, 301, 456 
Pin worms, quinine for, 114 

quassia for, 217 

sodium chloride for, 353 
Pipe gamboge, 250 
Piper angustifolium, 301 

cubeba, 300 

nigra pipissena, 308 
Pituitary body, 100 
as ecbolic, 317 
in hemorrhage, 101 
dystokia, 101 
shock, 101 
Pituitrin, 100 
Pix liquida, 100 
Plasters, 40 
Plaster paris, 357 
Pleistopon, 138 
Plumbi acetas, 424 

iodidum, 382, 425 

nitras, 425 

oxidum, 425 

subacetas, 424 
Plumbism, 423 
Plumbum, 421 

Pleuropneumonia, salvarsan in, 394 
Pneumonia, quinine in, 115 
Podophyllin, 251 
Podophyllum, 250 
Poison nut, 129 

Poisoning by magnesium sulphate, 255 
Polyvalent baeterins, 494 
Pomegranate root bark, 273 
Potassii acetas, 296 

bitartras, 296 

bromidum, 155 

carbonas, 439 

chloras, 349 



Potassii, continued 

citras, 296 

cum calce, 348 

cyanidum, 198 

dichromas, 436 

et sodii tartras, 255 

hydroxidum, 348 

iodidum, 379 

nitras, 106, 297 

permanganas, 464 

sulphurata, 442 
Potassium, ion action, 348 

acetate, 296 

bitartrate, 296 

as a laxative, 255 

bromide, 155 

citrate, 296 

as a laxative, 255 

cyanide, 198 

dichromate, 436 

iodide, 379 

in actinomycosis, 381 
432 hydrate, 248 

oleate, 481 

permanganate, 464 

as antiseptic for the hands, 464 

with chalk, 348 
Powders, 17, 36 

Practical disinfection of the hands, 473 
Precipitated calcium carbonate, 356 

manganese dioxide, 435 
Prepared chalk, 355 

Prescription, grammatical construction of, 
52 

gun shot, 68 

liquid, 59 

writing, 49 
Prickly ash, 217 
Primary effects, 62 
Properties of general anesthetics, 160 
Propesin, 193 
Protargol, 418 
Protectives, 475 

as antemetics, 231 
Protiodide of iron, 406 

mercury, 433 
Protochloride of mercury, 431 
Prunus Virginiana, 198 
Prussic acid, 196 
Pruritis, camphor in, 87 

formalin, 468 

menthol, 195 

phenol, 450 
Pseudojervine, 95 
Psoriasis, chrysarobin in, 340 

sodium cacodvlate in, 393 
Psychotrine, 229 
Pterocarpus marsupium, 266 
Ptyalism, mercurial, 427 
Pulmonary edema, atropine for, 181 

nitroglycerin for, 108 
Pulveres, 36 
Pulvis acetanilidum compositus, 116 

cretae compositus, 355, 478 
. glycyrrhizas compositus, 246, 439 

rhei compositus, 359 
Pumpkin seed, 275 
Punicine, 273 
Purgatives, action of, 232 

classification of, 235 

definition, 236 

general uses of, 234 
Purgen, 246 
Purified talc, 480 
Purpura, colloidal silver in, 419 

formalin in, 467 

salvarsan in, 394 

turpentine in, 302 

potassium dichromate in, 436 
Pyoktannin, 460 

blue, 460 

yellow, 460 
Pyorrhea, emetin in, 231 



514 



INDEX 



Pyrethrum, 286 
Pyroligneous acid, 368 

Pyxol, acetone and alcohol method of disin- 
fecting the hands, 473 



Quaker button, 129 
Quassia, 216 
Quassin, 216 
Queens root, 252 
Quereus, 268 

infectoria, 265 
Quevenne's iron, 405 
Quick lime, 356 

silver, 428 
Quinine, 111 

and urea hydrochloride, 112 
as a local anesthetic, 191 

bisulphate, 112 

bromide, 112 

hydrochloride, 112 

salicylate, 112 

sulphate, 112 
Quinidine, 111 

R 

Rabies vaccine, 491 
Rachitis, thyroid in, 384 

phosphorus in, 398 
Ragwort, 317 
Rectal anesthesia, 169 

injections, 257 

irrigations, 258 
Red cinchona, 111 

iodide of mercury, 432 

lead, 425 

pepper, 222, 342 

precipitate, 434 

wine, 170 
Reduced iron, 405 
Relative size of doses, 66 
Remote action, 62 
Rennin, 220 
Resin, 304 
Resina, 304 
Resins, definition of, 4 
Resins, manufacture of, 36 
Respiratory depressants, 288 

stimulants, 287 
Resorcin, 458 
Resorcinol, 458 

Retained placenta, iodoform in. 377 
Retention theory of immunity, 487 
Rhamnus pursliiana, 245 
Rhatany, 266 
Rheum, 243 
Rheumatism, alkalies in, 295 

salol in, 123 

salicylates in, 122 

sodium bicarbonate in, 352 
Rhubarb, 243 
Rhus glabra, 268 
Ringer's solution. 103 
Ringer-Locke solution, 103 
Rochelle salts, 255 
Rosin, 304 
Rottlera, 274 

Round worms, treatment for, 223 
Rubus, 269 
Rue, 319 
Rubijervine, 95 

Rules for formation of the genitive case, 52 
Ruminatorium, tartar emetic as, 396 

tobacco as, 202 
Russian oil, 237 
Ruta, 319 
Rye, ergot of, 311 



Sabina. 318 



Saccharated ferrous carbonate, 405 
Sal Alembroth, 4iil 

ammoniac, 363 

carolinuni factidum, 255 

commune, 352 

tartar, 349 
Salicin, 123 
Salicylate of lithium, 120 

magnesium, 120 

potassium, 120 

sodium, 120 

strontium, 120 
Salicylates in intestinal fermentation, 122 

rheumatism, 122 
Salicylic acid, 119 
Saliphen, 124 
Salipvrine, 118 
Salol," -122 
Salophen, 124 
Saloquinine, 124 
Saline infusion. 102 
Salines as diuretics, 292-295 

purgatives, 252 
action of. 252 

per rectum, 104 
Salt, 352 

epsom. 254 

Glauber's, 255 

Rochelle, 255 
Saltpeter, 106, 297 
Salt, spirit of, 366 

table, 352 
Salts of the heavy metals, 401 

lithium. 354 

as diuretics, 298 

mercury, 429 

tartar, *349 
Salvarsan, 393 
Sandalwood oil, 300 
Sanitas, 305 
Santal oil, 300 
Santalum album, 300 
Santonin, 276 
Sapo, 480 

mollis, 481 
Saponins, 4 
Sapotoxins, 4 
Sassafras pith, 479 
Savine. 318 

Scale preparations of iron, 410 
Scammonire radix, 251 
Scarification, 334 
Scarlet rea, 462 
Scheele's green. 392 
Schleich's local anesthesia, 189 
Scillin. 82 
Scillipicrin, 82 
Scillitoxin, 82 

Sclerestomes, atoxyl for, 392 
Scopola, 183 
Scopolamine, 183 

as mydriatic, 213 

morphine anesthesia, 182 
Scoparin, 295 
Scoparius, 295 
Secale cornutin, 311 
Secalintoxin, 313 
Secretin, 220 

Sedatives to genito urinary system, 309 
Semen areca?, 279 
Senechio, 317 
Senna, 246 

Separation, definition, 12 
Separation by heat, 13 
Septicemia, formalin in, 467 
Sequellae, untoward, from ether anesthesia, 

168 
Serobacterins. 489, 498 
Serous effusions, iodides for, 381 
Serpentnria, 217 
Serum, Beebe's. 384 
Serums, 489-496 



INDEX 



515 



Sevum prseparatum, 475 
Shock and collapse, infusions in, 104 
gelatin in, 330 
pituitary extract in, 101 
Signature, 49, 50 
Silver, 415 
citrate, 418 
cyanide, 415 
foil, 417 
lactate, 418 
nitrate, 416 
oxide, 415 
vitellin, 418 
Sinalbin, 338 
Sinapis alba, 338 

nigra, 338 
Sinigrin, 338 . . 

Skin disease, arsenic m, d9i 

formalin in, 467 
Slippery elm. 479 
Smyrna galls, 265 
Snake root, black, 217 

Virginian, 217 
Soap, 480 
Soapstone, 480 

So called rapid purgatives, 255 
Socotrine aloes, 241 
Soda, baking, 351 
caustic, 350 
washing, 351 
Sodii arsenas, 385 
exsiccatus, 386 
benzoas, 471 
bicarbonas, 351 
bisulphis, 442 
boras, 471 

carbonas, 351 
exsiccatus, 351 
monohydrattfs, 351 
glycerophosphas, 400 
hydroxidum, 350 
iodidum, 381 
nitris, 95 
perboras, 464 
phenosulphonas, 452 
phosphas, 354 
salicylas, 120 
sulphas, 255 
sulphis exsiccatus, 44<J 
thiosulphas, 442 
Sodium, 350 
arsenate, 385 
acetyl arsenilate, 392 
benzoate, 471 
bicarbonate, 351 

as antacid, 218 
bisulphite, 442 
borate, 471 
carbonate, 351 
cacodvlate, 392 
chloride, 352 
glycerophosphate, 400 
hydrate, 350 
hyposulphite, 442 
ion action, 350 
nitrite, 105 
perborate, 464 
salicylate, 120 
thiosulphate, 442 
Soft soap, 481 
Solid preparations, 22 
Solubilities of salts. 43 
Solubility in different media, 45 
Soluble ferric phosphate, 408 
pyrophosphate of iron, 410 
silver, 418 
Solution definition, 13 

of ammonium acetate, 363 

Dawson's. 102 

Locke's, 102 

of arsenous acid, 385 

and mercuric iodides, 385 
Solution of ferric chloride, 407 



Solution, continued 
ferric sulphate, 408 
subsulphate, 408 
pituitary body, 100 
potassium arsenite, 385 
sodium arsenate, 386 
zinc chloride. 414 
Ringer's, 103 
Ringer — Locke's, 103 
Solutions, definition, 24 
isotonic, 103 
hypertonic, 103 
hypotonic, 103 
percentage, to make, 60 
Some very weak laxatives, 237 
Somnifacients, 135—136 
Source and composition of drugs, 1 
Sozoidol, 379 
Spacelinic acid, 312 
Spaeclotoxin, 313 
Spanish flies, 336 
Sparteine, 202 

as a diuretic, 295 
Spasm, belladonna in, 178 
Spearmint, 224 

Specifics for the alimentary tract, 215 
Spermaceti, 477 
Spigelia, 278 
Spinal analgesia, 186 
cord excitants, 129 
Spirits of camphor, 86 
glonoin, 106 
mindererus, 363 
nitroglycerin, 106 
nitrous ether, 298 

as a diaphoretic, 325 
salt, 366 
turpentine, 301 
wine, 170 
Spiritus, definition, 26 
Spiritus, 170 

setheris nitrosi, 106, 298 
ammonias, 361 

aromatic, 361 
camphorae, 86 
frumenti, 170 
glycerylis nitratis, 106 
rectificatus, 170 
vini gallici, 170 
vini rectificatissimus, 170 
Spirosal, 124 
Spotted hemlock, 199 
Spurred rye, 311 
Squill, 72-82 
Squirting cucumber, 249 
Staphisagria, 94 
Starch, 479 
Stavesacre, 94 
Stearic acid, 370 
Stearoptens, 4 
Stellingia, 252 

Stimulants, central nervous, 126 
circulatory, 72 
genitourinary, 299 

turpentine as, 303 
milk, 320 
renal, 293 
spinal, 129 
sweat, 324 
Stock bacterins, 494 
Stokes' pectoral mixture, 82 
Stomachics. 215 
Stovaine, 191 

Straining, definition of, 16 
Stramonium, 183 

Strengths of aqueous solutions 44 
Stronger ammonia water, 360 
Strontii bromidum, 155 
iodidum, 382 
salicylas. 120 
Strophanthin. 81-82 

crystalline gratus, 85 



516 



INDEX 



Strophanthus, 82 
Strychnina, 72, 129 
Strychnine, 72, 129 

as a circulatory stimulant, 90 
respiratory stimulant, 287 

nitrate, 129 

poisoning, 132 
chloral in, 150 
chloroform in, 163 
Sulphate, 129 
Styptic collodion, 480 
Stypticin, 135-329 
Styptics, 327 
Subacetate of lead, 424 
Subchloride of mercury, 431 
Subcutaneous tuberculin test, 483 
Sublimation, definition, 13 
Sublimed crude sulphur, 439 
Sublimed sulphur, 439 
Subscription, 49—50 
Substitutes for cocaine, 190 
Sudorifics, 323 
Suet, 475 
Sugar of lead, 424 
Sulphide of calcium, 441 

potash, 442 
Sulphocarbolates, 452 
Sulphonal, 152 
Sulphonethylmethanum, 152 
Sulphonmethanum, 152 
Sulphones, 152 
Sulphur compounds, 439 

as a laxative, 237 

iodide, 382, 441 

lotum, 439 

prseeipitatum, 439 

sublimatum, 439 
Sulphurated lime, 441 

potash, 442 
Sulphuric acid, 367 

ether, 164 
Sulphurous acid, 368 
Sun Cholera Mixture, 146-264 
Superscription, 49—50 
Supracapsuline, 98 
Suprarenaline, 98 
Sweat, character of, 323 
Sweet flag, 217 

oil, 238 

spirits of niter, 106, 298 
Syrup, definition, 25 

of ipecac, 229 
iron iodide, 406 
the phosphates of iron, quinine and 

strychnine, 130 
squill, 82 

compound, 82, 394 
Syrupus, definition, 25 

ferri iodidi, 406 

et mangani iodidi, 435 

hypophosphitum, 399 
compositus, 399 

picis liquidas, 456 
Systemtic action, 62 



Tabacum, 201 
Tabellas, 40 

Table of apothecaries measures, 7 
weights, 7 

avoirdupois weights, 7 
Tablets, coated, 41 

compressed, 41 

dispensing, 41 

hypodermic, 41 

triturates, 41 
Tablets, 41 
Tsenicides, 270-272 
Talc, 480 

Talcum purificatum, 480 
Taka-diastase, 220 



Tanacetum, 318 
Tansy, 318 
Tannalbin, 265 
Tannic acid, 261 

as a hemostatic, 327 
Tannigen, 264 
Tannin, 261 
Tannocol, 265 
Tannoform, 265, 470 
Tannon, 469 
Tannopin, 265-469 
Tape worms, remedies for, 270—272 
Tar, 456 

camphor, 459 

liniment (Vienna), 440 

oil of. 456 
Taraxacum, 217 
Tartar, cream of 296 

emetic, 394 

as emetic, 227 
vermicide, 395 

salt of, 394 
Tartaric acid, 369 
Tartrate of iron and ammonia, 410 
Terebene, 304 
Terebenum, 304 
Terebinthina, 301 
Terpine hydrate, 305 
Tetanus antitoxin, 495 

lobelia in, 200 

magnesium sulphate in, 255 

phenol in, 451 
Tetra-iodo pyrrhol, 378 
Thebaine, 137 
Theine, 126 
Theobromine, 126 
Theories of immunity, 486 

narcosis. 158 
Theory of treatment of cough, 289 
Therapeutic incompatibility, 46 
Therapeutics, definition, 1 

history of, 66 

of bromides. 157 
Thermodin, 119 
Thiocol, 456 
Thiol, 444 
Thiosinamine, 339 
Thornapple, 183 
Thymic acid, 458 
Thymol, 458 

for hookworms, 280 
Thymol iodide, 378 
Thymus vulgaris, 458 
Thyroid glands, desiccated, 383 

dried, 383 
Thryoidectin, 384 
Thyroidectomy, effects of, 383 
Thyroideum siccum, 383 
Tinctura, definition, 28 

preparation, 28 
Tinctura antiperiodica, 112 
Tincture of aconite, Plemming's, 91 

of iron chloride, 407 

veratrum viridum, 95 
To fold powders, 17 
To wrap packages, 19 

round boxes, 18 

bottles, 20 
Tobacco, 201 

Indian, 199 

in mange, 202 

toxicology, 202 
Toluifera pereirae, 341 
Torrefaction, definition, 13 
Toxemia, infusion in 104 
Toxic immunity, 487 
Toxicology of strychnine, 132 
Tragacanth, 478 
Tragacantha, 478 
Transfusion of blood, 102 
Treatment for accidents during anesthesia, 
69 



INDEX 



517 



Treatment for arsenic poisoning, 389 

strychnine poisoning, 132 
Tribromphenol bismuth, 453 
Trochisci, definition, 38 
Troches, 38 
Trichloracetic acid, 369 

as a caustic, 345 
Trikresol, 457 
Triformal, 468 
Trinitrin, 105 
Trinitrophenol, 459 
Trional, 152 
Trioxmethylene, 468 
Trypan blue, 561 
Triturates, 37 
Trituration, 12 

Tropococaine, 192 , . 

Trypanosome disease, arsenic in, oy^ 

tartar emetic, 396 
True digitalin, 84 
Tuberculin, 482 
Tully powder, 138 
Turpentine, 301 

oil of, 301 

spirits of, 301 

as a carminative, 223 
counterirritant, 302-343 
tsenicide, 275 
Turpeth mineral, 434 
Type processes for fiuidextracts, 6 A 

tinctures, 23 
Tyramin, 312 

U 

Ulcer of cornea 

silver-nitrate in, 417 
yellow oxide of mercury ointment, 434 
calomel, 432 
TJmulus, 479 
Uncaria gambir, 267 
Uncinaria, treatment for, 280 
Unguenta, definition, 38 
Unguentum acidi borici, 470 
hydrargyri, 429 
ammoniati, 433 
dilutum, 429 
nitratis, 433 
oxidi flavi, 434 
rubri, 434 
phenolis, 447 
picis liquidae, 406 
sulphuris, 439 

alkalinum, 440, 441 
zinci oxidi. 414 
Unofficial preparations. 40 
Untoward sequellae from ether anesthesia, 

168 
Urginea maritima, 82 
Urethane, 469 
Urotropin, 469 _ _ " 

anhvdromethylencitrate, 469 
Uses "of drugs in disease, 70 
Ustilago maydis, 317 
Uterine sedatives, 319 
Uva ursi, 307 



Vaccines, 488 . 

serums, bacterins and antitoxins, 485 
Valerates. 158 
Valerinates, 158 
Valeriana, 158 
Vallet's mass, 405 
Vaseline, 476 
Vasoconstrictors, 98 

as hemostatics, 328 
dilators, 105 

as hemostatics, 328 
Vegetable calomel, 250 

irritants as emetics, 227 
Venesection, 109 



Venetian talc, 480 
Veratrine, 95-96 
Veratrum, 95 
Veratrum Viridum, 95 

for lice, 95 
Vermicides, 270 
calomel as, 432 
chloroform as 163 
copper sulphate as, 412 
picric acid as, 459 
tartar emetic as, 395 
Vermifuges, 270 
Veronal, 152 

Verworn, theory of narcosis, 159 
Volatile oils, 282 
for flavors, 84 
of mustard, 338 
Viburnum opulus, 319 

prunifolium, 319 
Vienna paste, 348 
Vinegars, 34 
Vinegar, 368 
wood, 368 
Vini, 34 
Vinum album, 170 

rubrum, 170 
Virginia snake root, 217 
Vitriol, blue, 411 
green, 406 
oil of, 367 
white, 412 
Vouacapoua araroba, 340 



W 



"Wahoo, 83 

Warburg's tincture, 112 

Warts, to remove, salicylic acid, 121 

formalin, 467 
Wash, black, 432 

vellow, 431 
Washed sulphur, 439 
Washing soda, 350 
Waters, 22 
Wax, 477 
Weighing, 11 
Weight, definition of, 7 

Weir's method of disinfecting the hands, 474 
Wet cupping, 110 

What should we learn about drugs, 70 
Whiskey, 170 
White arsenic, 385 
oak bark, 268 
petrolatum, 476 
precipitate, 433 
scours serum. 479 

formalin in, 467 
vitriol, 412 
wine, 170 
Wild cherry, 198 
Wine, red, 170 

white, 170 
Wines, definition, 34 
Witch-hazel, 268 
Wolfsbane. 91 
Wood charcoal, 465 
alcohol, 173 
vinegar, 368 
Wool fat, 476 
Worm remedies, 270 
Worms, hook, 270 
Wormseed, American, 278 

Levant, 276 
Wrapping boxes, 19 
bottles, 20 
packagaes, 19 



Xanthoxylum. 217 
Xeroform, 453 



518 



INDEX 



Yellow cinchona, 111 

jasmine, 200 

mercuric oxide, 434 
sulphate, 434 

mercurous iodide, 433 

precipitate, 434 

wash, 431 
Yerba santa, 196 
Yohimbine as a local anesthetic, 193 

anaphrodisiac, 321 



Zen, 308 

mays, 308 
Zinc, 412 



Zinc, continued 

acetate, 413 

bromide, 155 

carbonate (precipitated), 413 

chloride, 414 

oxide, 413 

phenolsulphonate, 415 

phosphide, 398 

stearate, 415 

sulphate, 412 
as emetic, 227 

sulphocarbolate, 415 

valerate, 158 

valerinate. 158 
Zinci acetas, 413 

oxidum, 413 
Zincum, 412 
Zingiber, 222 



INDEX TO PEESCKIPTIONS 



Absorbent, 342, 376, 430, 431 
Alcoholic sublimate solution, 430 
Alkaline sulphur ointment, 441 
Anemia, dog, 392 

horse, 391-392 
Anesthetic, local, 451 
Anodyne, dog, 147 

horse and cow, 143, 146, 147 
Antispasmodic, 166 
Astringent, dog, 270 

horse and cow, 146-147, 218, 269 
Arsenic paste, 391 
Blister, 249, 338, 376 
Bismuth paste, 421 
Bronchitis, acute, 396, 306 

fetid, 303 

chronic, 305, 83; dog, 459 

subacute, dog, 459 
Burows solution, 438 
Cardiac dropsy, dog, 81 
Carlsbad salts, 255 
Catarrh of bladder, 306 
Caustic paste, 414, 391 
Circulatory stimulant, camphor, 88 
Colic, 205, 303, 414 
Collar galls, 468 
Compound sulphur ointment, 441 
Constipation, dog, 240 
Corneal opacity, 435 
Coryza, dog, 89 
Cough, horse, 146, 184, 455 

dog, 305 _ 
Conjunctivitis, 461 
Diachylon ointment, 426 
Diarrhea, 146, 245, 264, 267, 421 
Distemper, dog, 454 
Diuretic, 294 

Dusting powder, 414, 438, 480 
Eczema, 122, 413, 434, 425, 440 
Edema of lungs, 184 
Enteritis, 146 
Epilepsy, dog, 157 
Expectorant, horse, 396 

dog, 230 
Fistula, 431 
Fleas and lice, 94 
Fowls, cattle and sheep, 415 
Gastric irritation, 420 
Granulated lids, 434 
Harrington's solution, 431 
Heaves, 184 

Hebra,'s itch ointment, 440 
Hobble chafes, etc., 461 
Hookworms, dog, 458 
Indigestion, dog, 245 
Inhalant, 195 
Impaction, cow, 249 



Intestinal antiseptic, 452—454 
Irritable bladder, dog, 307 
Irritant and absorbent, 430—431 
Keratitis, 434, 435 
Lassar's paste, 414 
Licking disease, 228 
Liniment, 94, 303 

for summer mange in horses, 441 

Vienna tar, 440 
Mange, 342, 273, 441, 442, 342, 451, 440 
Mastitis, 88, 184 
Mouth wash, 268 
Narcotic, horse, 150 

dog, 147, 150 
Pharyngitis, 407 

Permanent solution of morphine, 147, 229 
Periodic ophthalmia, 376 
Pneumonia, horse, 81, 455 
Pulmonary emphysema, dog, 108 
Purpura hemorrhagica, 436, 468 
Pruritis, 195, 451, 459, 88, 468 
Purgative, horse, 183, 241, 343 
Psoriasis, 340, 341 
Rachitis, 221 
Ringworm, 433 
Seborrhea, 459 
Septicemia, 468 

Sodium cacodylate solution, 392 
Spasmodic colic, 166 
Spavin, 342, 376, 430-431 
Scratches, etc., 413, 461 
Squibb's diarrhea mixture, 264 
Stomatitis, 318 

Strychnine poisoning, dog, 150 
Sun cholera mixture, 146, 264 
Supersaturated solution of corrosive sub- 
limate, 431 
Tapeworms, dog, 272-274-275 
Tetanus, Bacelli's treatment, 452 
Tonic, horse, 216, 408 

dog, 217 
Tympanv, horse and cow, 223, 303 
Unguentum sulphuris alkalinum, 441 
ITnna's paste, 414 
Vienna tar liniment, 440 
Vomiting of dogs, 421, 451 
Wash, lead and epium, 425 
White lotion, 413 
White scours, 468 

Worms, horse, 277, 279-280, 304, 391 
dog, 274-276-278-279-280 
sheep, 280 
hog, 227 
lung, 281 
Wound dressing, 243 
Yellow mercuric oxide ointment, 434 



Printed in the United States of America. 



519 



T 



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The Pathology and Differential 
Diagnosis of Infectious Dis- 
eases of Animals 



Fourth Edition, revised and enlarged. 



By VERANUS ALVA MOORE, B.S., M.D. 

Professor of Comparative Pathology, Bacteriology and Meat Inspection, and 
Director of the New York State Veterinary College, Cornell University, 

Ithaca, N. Y. 



Cloth, 8vo, 560 pp., with 120 ill., $4.00 

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on the Federal regulations for the veterinary inspection of meat. 
These may be of much assistance to veterinarians. The diseases 
not indigenous to, or imported into, this country have been accorded 
much less space than those existing here. The desire is to empha- 
size the nature of the diseases our veterinarians are liable to en- 
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The same plan of presenting the subject and of grouping the dis- 
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Principles of Microbiology 



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" This book of Professor Moore's is most highly to be recom- 
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Diseases of the Dog and Aids to 
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" Diseases of the Dog and Aids to Treatment and Manage- 
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Medical and Veterinary 
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